The DT the floral JJ floral biology NN biology and CC and pollination NN pollination of IN of Clusia NP arrudae NN was VBD be studied VVN study at IN at `` `` `` Serra NP Serra da NP da Calcada NP '' '' '' . SENT . C. NP C. arrudae NN does VVZ do not RB not present VV present apomixis NN apomixis even RB even when WRB when resin NN resin is VBZ be deposited VVN deposit on IN on the DT the stigma NN stigma . SENT . Fruits NNS fruit developed VVN develop from IN from flowers NNS flower manually RB manually pollinated VVN pollinate produced VVN produce more JJR more seeds NNS seed ( ( ( 6.3 CD @card@ per IN per locule NN locule in IN in average NN average ) ) ) than IN than fruits NNS fruit developed VVN develop from IN from flowers NNS flower naturally RB naturally pollinated VVN pollinate ( ( ( 4.3 CD @card@ seeds NNS seed per IN per locule NN locule ) ) ) . SENT . Blooming VVG bloom of IN of C. NP C. arrudae NN peaks NNS peak between IN between December NP December and CC and mid-February NN mid-February . SENT . Male JJ male and CC and female JJ female individuals NNS individual of IN of C. NP C. arrudae JJ produce NN produce flowers NNS flower daily JJ daily ; : ; however RB however , , , each DT each three CD three days NNS day there EX there is VBZ be a DT a synchronized VVN synchronize anthesis NN anthesis peak NN peak within IN within the DT the population NN population . SENT . Sexual JJ sexual rate NN rate in IN in the DT the population NN population is VBZ be 1 LS 1 : : : 1 LS 1 , , , with IN with male JJ male plants NNS plant producing VVG produce more JJR more flowers NNS flower than IN than female NN female . SENT . Male JJ male flowers NNS flower produce VVP produce about IN about 11X106 NP pollen NN pollen grains NNS grain along IN along the DT the three CD three day NN day anthesis NN anthesis . SENT . Most JJS most of IN of them PP them ( ( ( about IN about 66 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) are VBP be presented VVN present on IN on the DT the first JJ first day NN day . SENT . The DT the stigmas NNS stigma of IN of female JJ female flowers NNS flower remain VVP remain receptive JJ receptive for IN for three CD three days NNS day or CC or four CD four days NNS day when WRB when pollination NN pollination does VVZ do not RB not happen VV happen in IN in the DT the first JJ first three CD three days NNS day . SENT . Flowers NNS flower of IN of C. NP C. arrudae NN were VBD be visited VVN visit by IN by six CD six species NNS specie of IN of bees NNS bee for IN for pollen NN pollen or CC or resin NN resin collection NN collection . SENT . Workers NNS worker of IN of Apis NP mellifera NP and CC and Trigona NP spinipes NNS , , , and CC and females NNS female of IN of Xylocopa NP frontalis NP and CC and Neocorynura NP sp. NP visited VVD visit male JJ male flowers NNS flower for IN for pollen NN pollen ; : ; workers NNS worker of IN of Trigona NP spinipes NNS also RB also visited VVD visit female JJ female flower NN flower for IN for resin NN resin collection NN collection . SENT . Workers NNS worker of IN of Melipona NP quadrifasciata NN and CC and females NNS female of IN of Eufriesea NP nigrohirta NN were VBD be observed VVN observe collecting VVG collect resin NN resin on IN on both DT both male JJ male and CC and female JJ female flowers NNS flower . SENT . Due JJ due to TO to its PP$ its frequency NN frequency and CC and behavior NN behaviour on IN on flowers NNS flower of IN of both DT both sexes NNS sex , , , E. NP E. nigrohirta NP is VBZ be the DT the main JJ main pollinator NN pollinator of IN of C. NP C. arrudae NN at IN at `` `` `` Serra NP Serra da NP da Calcada NP '' '' '' . SENT . A DT a survey NN survey on IN on the DT the phenology NN phenology and CC and reproductive JJ reproductive biology NN biology of IN of Copaifera NP langsdorffii NP Desf. NP was VBD be carried VVN carry out RP out in IN in a DT a cerradao NN area NN area at IN at Fazenda NP Capim NP Branco NP Branco , , , Uberlandia NP Uberlandia , , , MG NP MG . SENT . Flowering JJ flowering occurs VVZ occur during IN during the DT the rain NN rain season NN season and CC and seed NN seed dispersal NN dispersal during IN during the DT the dry JJ dry season NN season . SENT . Flowers NNS flower are VBP be pale-green JJ pale-green , , , 0.5 CD @card@ cm NN in IN in diameter NN diameter , , , weakly RB weakly zigomorphic JJ and CC and organized VVN organize in IN in particulate JJ particulate inflorescences NNS inflorescence . SENT . They PP they are VBP be highly RB highly odoriferous JJ odoriferous , , , one-day JJ one-day flowers NNS flower . SENT . Anthesis NN anthesis begins VVZ begin at IN at about RB about 5 CD 5 : : : 00 CD @card@ h NN h . SENT . The DT the nectar NN nectar production NN production is VBZ be very RB very small JJ small ( ( ( 0.2 CD @card@ mul NN ) ) ) with IN with 49 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of sucrose NN sucrose equivalents NNS equivalent . SENT . The DT the most RBS most frequent JJ frequent flower NN flower visitors NNS visitor and CC and pollinators NNS pollinator were VBD be Apis NP mellifera NP , , , Scaptotrigona NP cf. JJ depiles NNS and CC and Trigona NP spinipes NNS bees NNS bee . SENT . Controlled JJ controlled hand-pollinations NNS showed VVD show that IN that the DT the species NN species is VBZ be mostly RB mostly self-sterile JJ and CC and non JJ non -apomictic NN . SENT . However RB however , , , pollen NN pollen tubes NNS tube were VBD be observed VVN observe growing VVG grow down RB down to TO to the DT the ovary NN ovary and CC and penetrating VVG penetrate the DT the ovules NNS ovule in IN in self-pollinated JJ self-pollinated pistils NNS pistil , , , a DT a fact NN fact which WDT which suggests VVZ suggest late-acting JJ self-sterility NN phenomena NNS phenomenon or CC or inbreeding JJ inbreeding depression NN depression . SENT . Fruit-set VVN was VBD be always RB always low JJ low and CC and related VVN relate to TO to low JJ low flower NN flower to TO to fruit NN fruit conversion NN conversion , , , may MD may be VB be due JJ due to TO to inefficient JJ inefficient pollination NN pollination and CC and fruit NN fruit predation NN predation . SENT . Multiple JJ multiple mating NN mating by IN by social JJ social insect NN insect queens NNS queen increases VVZ increase the DT the genetic JJ genetic diversity NN diversity among IN amongst colony NN colony members NNS member , , , thereby RB thereby reducing VVG reduce intracolony JJ relatedness NN relatedness and CC and lowering VVG lower the DT the potential JJ potential inclusive JJ inclusive fitness NN fitness gains NNS gain of IN of altruistic JJ altruistic workers NNS worker . SENT . Increased VVN increase genetic JJ genetic diversity NN diversity may MD may be VB be adaptive JJ adaptive , , , however RB however , , , by IN by reducing VVG reduce the DT the prevalence NN prevalence of IN of disease NN disease within IN within a DT a nest NN nest . SENT . Honeybees NNS honeybee , , , whose WP$ whose queens NNS queen have VHP have the DT the highest JJS high levels NNS level of IN of multiple JJ multiple mating NN mating among IN amongst social JJ social insects NNS insect , , , were VBD be investigated VVN investigate to TO to determine VV determine whether IN whether genetic JJ genetic variation NN variation helps VVZ help to TO to prevent VV prevent chronic JJ chronic infections NNS infection . SENT . I PP I instrumentally RB instrumentally inseminated VVD inseminate honeybee NN honeybee queens NNS queen with IN with semen NN semen that WDT that was VBD be either RB either genetically RB genetically similar JJ similar ( ( ( from IN from one CD one male NN male ) ) ) or CC or genetically RB genetically diverse JJ diverse ( ( ( from IN from multiple JJ multiple males NNS male ) ) ) , , , and CC and then RB then inoculated VVD inoculate their PP$ their colonies NNS colony with IN with spores NNS swarm of IN of Ascosphaera NP apis NN , , , a DT a fungal JJ fungal pathogen NN pathogen that WDT that kills VVZ kill developing VVG develop brood NN brood . SENT . I PP I show VVP show that IN that genetically RB genetically diverse JJ diverse colonies NNS colony had VHD have a DT a lower JJR low variance NN variance in IN in disease NN disease prevalence NN prevalence than IN than genetically RB genetically similar JJ similar colonies NNS colony , , , which WDT which suggests VVZ suggest that DT that genetic JJ genetic diversity NN diversity may MD may benefit VV benefit colonies NNS colony by IN by preventing VVG prevent severe JJ severe infections NNS infection . SENT . Systematical JJ observations NNS observation and CC and researches VVZ research were VBD be conducted VVN conduct on IN on the DT the population NN population size NN size dynamics NNS dynamics of IN of Apis NP mellifera NP Ligustica NP Spi. NP and CC and Apis NP cerana NN cerana NN Feb. NP Feb. in IN in Wanzhong NP , , , Wanxi NP and CC and Wannan NP mountainous JJ mountainous area NN area in IN in Anhui NP Anhui Province NP Province in IN in 1997 CD @card@ -1999 CD @card@ . SENT . The DT the results NNS result showed VVD show that IN that the DT the bee NN bee population NN population size NN size was VBD be influenced VVN influence by IN by climate NN climate and CC and flower NN flower fertility NN fertility , , , which WDT which was VBD be higher JJR high in IN in Spring NP Spring and CC and Autumn NP Autumn , , , and CC and lower JJR low in IN in Summer NPS Summer and CC and Winter NPS Winter . SENT . The DT the propagation NN propagation and CC and renewal NN renewal of IN of A. NP A. mellifera NN in IN in Autumn NP Autumn were VBD be quicker JJR quick than IN than those DT those of IN of A. NP A. cerana NN cerana NN , , , while IN while the DT the effect NN effect of IN of overcoming VVG overcome Summer NPS Summer was VBD be inferior JJ inferior to TO to that DT that of IN of Apis NP cerana NN cerana NN . SENT . The DT the sex NN sex ratio NN ratio of IN of A. NP A. mellifera NN was VBD be ( ( ( 314.4 CD @card@ +- NN 289.9 CD @card@ ) ) ) : : : 1- CD @card@ ( ( ( 329.4 CD @card@ +- NN 305.8 CD @card@ ) ) ) : : : 1 LS 1 , , , and CC and that IN that of IN of A. NP A. cerana NN cerana NN was VBD be ( ( ( 334.2 CD @card@ +- NN 235.5 CD @card@ ) ) ) : : : 1- CD @card@ ( ( ( 413.1 CD @card@ +- NN 377.2 CD @card@ ) ) ) : : : 1 LS 1 . SENT . The DT the birth NN birth of IN of drones NNS drone was VBD be seasonal JJ seasonal , , , and CC and the DT the age NN age structure NN structure of IN of each DT each bee NN bee population NN population was VBD be variable JJ variable . SENT . Ipomoea NN ipomoea imperati NNS ( ( ( Convolvulaceae NP ) ) ) lives VVZ live on IN on the DT the sandy JJ sandy shores NNS shore of IN of the DT the Brazilian JJ Brazilian coast NN coast and CC and in IN in other JJ other areas NNS area of IN of the DT the world NN world . SENT . The DT the anti-inflammatory JJ anti-inflammatory activity NN activity of IN of a DT a methanol-water NN extract NN extract of IN of the DT the leaves NNS leaf of IN of I. NP I. imperati NP was VBD be investigated VVN investigate in IN in experimental JJ experimental models NNS model of IN of acute JJ acute and CC and subchronic JJ inflammation NN inflammation . SENT . Topical JJ topical application NN application of IN of the DT the extract NN extract ( ( ( 10 CD @card@ mg/ear NN ) ) ) inhibited VVD inhibit mouse NN mouse ear NN ear edema NN edema induced VVN induce by IN by croton NN croton oil NN oil ( ( ( 89.0 CD @card@ +- NN 1.3 CD @card@ % NN % by IN by the DT the lipid NN lipid fraction NN fraction with IN with an DT an IC50 NN of IN of 3.97 CD @card@ mg/ear NN and CC and 57.0 CD @card@ +- NN 1.3 CD @card@ % NN % by IN by the DT the aqueous JJ aqueous fraction NN fraction with IN with an DT an IC50 NN of IN of 3.5 CD @card@ mg/ear NN ) ) ) and CC and arachidonic JJ acid NN acid ( ( ( 42.0 CD @card@ +- NN 2.0 CD @card@ % NN % with IN with an DT an IC50 NN of IN of 4.98 CD @card@ mg/ear NN and CC and 31.0 CD @card@ +- NN 2.0 CD @card@ % NN % with IN with an DT an IC50 NN of IN of 4.72 CD @card@ mg/ear NN ) ) ) . SENT . Phospholipase NP A2 NP , , , purified VVN purify from IN from Apis NP mellifera NN bee NN bee venom NN venom , , , was VBD be also RB also inhibited VVD inhibit by IN by the DT the extract NN extract ( ( ( 5.0 CD @card@ mg/ml NN lipid NN lipid and CC and aqueous JJ aqueous fraction NN fraction ) ) ) in IN in vitro NN in IN in a DT a dose-dependent JJ manner NN manner ( ( ( 85 CD @card@ % NN % by IN by the DT the lipid NN lipid fraction NN fraction with IN with an DT an IC50 NN of IN of 3.22 CD @card@ mg/ml NN and CC and 25 CD @card@ % NN % by IN by the DT the aqueous JJ aqueous fraction NN fraction with IN with an DT an IC50 NN of IN of 3.43 CD @card@ mg/ml NN ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the methanol-water NN extract NN extract of IN of I. NP I. imperati NP ( ( ( 1000 CD @card@ mg/kg NN ) ) ) administered VVN administer by IN by the DT the oral JJ oral route NN route also RB also inhibited VVD inhibit the DT the formation NN formation of IN of cotton NN cotton pellet-induced VVD granulomas NNS granuloma ( ( ( 73.2 CD @card@ +- NN 1.2 CD @card@ % NN % by IN by the DT the lipid NN lipid fraction NN fraction and CC and 56.14 CD @card@ +- NN 2.7 CD @card@ % NN % by IN by the DT the aqueous JJ aqueous fraction NN fraction ) ) ) and CC and did VVD do not RB not cause VV cause gastric JJ gastric mucosal JJ mucosal lesions NNS lesion . SENT . I. NP I. imperati NP extracts VVZ extract ( ( ( 10 CD @card@ mg/ml NN ) ) ) also RB also inhibited VVD inhibit in IN in a DT a dose-dependent JJ manner NN manner the DT the muscle NN muscle contractions NNS contraction of IN of guinea NN guinea pig NN pig ileum NN ileum induced VVN induce by IN by acetylcholine NN acetylcholine and CC and histamine NN histamine ( ( ( IC50 JJ of IN of 1.60 CD @card@ mg/ml NN for IN for the DT the lipid NN lipid fraction NN fraction and CC and 4.12 CD @card@ mg/ml NN for IN for the DT the aqueous JJ aqueous fraction NN fraction ) ) ) . SENT . These DT these results NNS result suggest VVP suggest the DT the use NN use of IN of I. NP I. imperati NNS as IN as an DT an anti-inflammatory JJ anti-inflammatory and CC and antispasmodic JJ antispasmodic agent NN agent in IN in traditional JJ traditional medicine NN medicine . SENT . Reproduction NN reproduction and CC and population NN population growth NN growth of IN of Varroa NP destructor NN destructor was VBD be studied VVN study in IN in ten CD ten naturally RB naturally infested VVN infest , , , Africanized VVN Africanize honey NN honey bee NN bee ( ( ( AHB NP ) ) ) ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) colonies NNS colony in IN in Yucatan NP Yucatan , , , Mexico NP Mexico . SENT . Between IN between February NP February 1997 CD @card@ and CC and January NP January 1998 CD @card@ monthly JJ monthly records NNS record of IN of the DT the amount NN amount of IN of pollen NN pollen , , , honey NN honey , , , sealed JJ sealed worker NN worker and CC and drone NN drone brood NN brood were VBD be recorded VVN record . SENT . In IN in addition NN addition , , , mite NN mite infestation NN infestation levels NNS level of IN of adult NN adult bees NNS bee and CC and worker NN worker brood NN brood and CC and the DT the fecundity NN fecundity of IN of the DT the mites NNS mite reproducing VVG reproduce in IN in worker NN worker cells NNS cell were VBD be determined VVN determine . SENT . The DT the mean JJ mean number NN number of IN of sealed JJ sealed worker NN worker brood NN brood cells NNS cell ( ( ( 10 CD @card@ , , , 070+-1 CD , , , 790 CD @card@ ) ) ) remained VVD remain fairly RB fairly constant JJ constant over IN over the DT the experimental JJ experimental period NN period in IN in each DT each colony NN colony . SENT . However RB however , , , the DT the presence NN presence and CC and amount NN amount of IN of sealed JJ sealed drone NN drone brood NN brood was VBD be very RB very variable JJ variable . SENT . One CD One colony NN colony had VHD have drone NN drone brood NN brood for IN for 10 CD @card@ months NNS month and CC and another DT another for IN for only RB only 1 CD 1 month NN month . SENT . Both PDT both the DT the mean JJ mean infestation NN infestation level NN level of IN of worker NN worker brood NN brood ( ( ( 18.1+-8.4 CD % NN % ) ) ) and CC and adult NN adult bees NNS bee ( ( ( 3.5+-1.3 CD % NN % ) ) ) remained VVD remain fairly RB fairly constant JJ constant over IN over the DT the study NN study period NN period and CC and did VVD do not RB not increase VV increase rapidly RB rapidly as RB as is VBZ be normally RB normally observed VVN observe in IN in European JJ European honey NN honey bees NNS bee . SENT . In IN in fact NN fact , , , the DT the estimated JJ estimated mean JJ mean number NN number of IN of mites NNS mite fell VVD fall from IN from 3 CD 3 , , , 500 CD @card@ in IN in February NP February 1997 CD @card@ to TO to 2 CD 2 , , , 380 CD @card@ in IN in January NP January 1998 CD @card@ . SENT . In IN in May NP May 2000 CD @card@ the DT the mean JJ mean mite NN mite population NN population in IN in the DT the study NN study colonies NNS colony was VBD be still RB still only RB only 1 CD 1 , , , 821 CD @card@ mites NNS mite . SENT . The DT the fertility NN fertility level NN level of IN of mites NNS mite in IN in this DT this study NN study was VBD be much RB much higher RBR high ( ( ( 83-96 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) than IN than in IN in AHB NP in IN in Brazil NP Brazil ( ( ( 25-57 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) , , , and CC and similar JJ similar to TO to that DT that found VVN find in IN in EHB NP ( ( ( 76-94 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) . SENT . Mite NN mite fertility NN fertility remained VVD remain high JJ high throughout IN throughout the DT the entire JJ entire study NN study and CC and was VBD be not RB not influenced VVN influence by IN by the DT the amount NN amount of IN of pollen NN pollen , , , honey NN honey or CC or worker NN worker brood NN brood in IN in the DT the colonies NNS colony . SENT . Mites NNS mite in IN in the DT the genus NN genus Varroa NN are VBP be the DT the primary JJ primary parasites NNS parasite of IN of honey NN honey bees NNS bee on IN on several JJ several continents NNS continent . SENT . Genetic JJ genetic analyses NNS analysis based VVN base on IN on Varroa NP mitochondrial JJ mitochondrial DNA NN DNA have VHP have played VVN play a DT a central JJ central role NN role in IN in establishing VVG establish Varroa NP taxonomy NN taxonomy and CC and dispersal NN dispersal . SENT . Here RB here we PP we present VV present the DT the complete JJ complete mitochondrial JJ mitochondrial sequence NN sequence of IN of the DT the important JJ important honey NN honey bee NN bee pest NN pest Varroa NP destructor NN destructor . SENT . This DT this species NN species has VHZ have a DT a relatively RB relatively compact JJ compact mitochondrial JJ mitochondrial genome NN genome ( ( ( 15 CD @card@ , , , 218 CD @card@ bp NN ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the order NN order of IN of genes NNS gene encoding VVG encode proteins NNS protein is VBZ be identical JJ identical to TO to that DT that of IN of most JJS most arthropods NNS arthropod . SENT . Ten CD Ten of IN of 22 CD @card@ transfer NN transfer RNAs NNS are VBP be in IN in different JJ different locations NNS location relative JJ relative to TO to hard JJ hard ticks NNS tick , , , and CC and the DT the 12S JJ ribosomal JJ ribosomal RNA NP RNA subunit NN subunit is VBZ be inverted VVN invert and CC and separated VVN separate from IN from the DT the 16S JJ rRNA NN by IN by a DT a novel NN novel non-coding VVG region NN region , , , a DT a trait NN trait not RB not yet RB yet seen VVN see in IN in other JJ other arthropods NNS arthropod . SENT . We PP we describe VVP describe a DT a dispersed VVD disperse set VVN set of IN of 45 CD @card@ oligonucleotide NN primers NNS primer that WDT that can MD can be VB be used VVN use to TO to address VV address genetic JJ genetic questions NNS question in IN in Varroa NP . SENT . A DT a subset NN subset of IN of these DT these primers NNS primer should MD should be VB be useful JJ useful for IN for taxonomic JJ taxonomic and CC and phylogenetic JJ phyletic studies NNS study in IN in other JJ other mites NNS mite and CC and ticks VVZ tick . SENT . Studies NNS study in IN in a DT a variety NN variety of IN of organisms NNS organism as IN as diverse JJ diverse as IN as molluscs NNS mollusc , , , insects NNS insect , , , birds NNS bird and CC and mammals NNS mammal have VHP have shown VVN show that IN that memories NNS memory can MD can exist VV exist in IN in a DT a variety NN variety of IN of temporal JJ temporal domains NNS domain ranging VVG range from IN from short-term JJ short-term memories NNS memory in IN in the DT the range NN range of IN of minutes NNS minute to TO to long JJ long -term JJ memories NNS memory lasting VVG last a DT a lifetime NN lifetime . SENT . While IN while transient JJ transeunt covalent JJ covalent modifications NNS modification of IN of proteins NNS protein underlie VV underlie short-term JJ short-term memory NN memory , , , the DT the formation NN formation of IN of long-term JJ long-term memory NN memory requires VVZ require gene NN gene expression NN expression and CC and protein NN protein synthesis NN synthesis . SENT . Different JJ different intracellular JJ intracellular signalling VVG signal cascades NNS cascade have VHP have been VBN be implicated VVN implicate in IN in distinct JJ distinct aspects NNS aspect of IN of learning VVG learn and CC and memory NN memory formation NN formation . SENT . Little RB little is VBZ be known VVN know however RB however , , , about IN about how WRB how learning VVG learn in IN in intact JJ intact animals NNS animal is VBZ be related VVN relate to TO to the DT the modulation NN modulation of IN of these DT these signalling VVG signal cascades NNS cascade and CC and how WRB how this DT this contributes VVZ contribute to TO to distinct JJ distinct neuronal JJ and CC and behavioural JJ changes NNS change in IN in vivo RB vivo . SENT . Associative JJ associative learning NN learning in IN in the DT the honeybee NN honeybee provides VVZ provide the DT the opportunity NN opportunity to TO to study VV study processes NNS process of IN of memory NN memory formation NN formation by IN by analysing VVG analyse its PP$ its progression NN progression through IN through different JJ different phases NNS phase , , , across IN across levels NNS level of IN of behaviour NN behaviour , , , neural JJ neural circuits NNS circuit , , , and CC and cellular JJ cellular signalling VVG signal pathways NNS pathway . SENT . The DT the findings NNS finding reveal VVP reveal evidence NN evidence that IN that various JJ various cellular JJ cellular signalling VVG signal pathways NNS pathway in IN in the DT the neuronal JJ circuit NN circuit of IN of distinct JJ distinct brain NN brain areas NNS area play VVP play a DT a role NN role in IN in different JJ different processes NNS process during IN during learning VVG learn and CC and memory NN memory formation NN formation . SENT . It PP it has VHZ have been VBN be difficult JJ difficult to TO to manipulate VV manipulate the DT the ultraviolet NN ultraviolet ( ( ( UV NP UV ) ) ) reflectance NN reflectance of IN of flowers NNS flower independently RB independently of IN of other JJ other wavelengths NNS wavelength to TO to study VV study the DT the response NN response of IN of insect NN insect pollinators NNS pollinator to TO to this DT this trait NN trait . SENT . One CD One effective JJ effective solution NN solution is VBZ be to TO to paint VV paint flower NN flower corollas NNS corolla with IN with human JJ human sunscreen NN sunscreen that WDT that absorbs VVZ absorb UV NP UV wavelengths NNS wavelength . SENT . Honeybees NNS honeybee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN scutellata NN ) ) ) foraging VVG forage on IN on the DT the strongly RB strongly UV-reflecting VVG flowers NNS flower of IN of Hypoxis NP hemerocallidea NP Fisch. NP & CC & C.A. NP Mey. NP rejected VVD reject flowers NNS flower that WDT that had VHD have UV NP UV reflectance NN reflectance eliminated VVN eliminate by IN by a DT a sunscreen NN sunscreen coating NN coating , , , but CC but continued VVD continue to TO to visit VV visit control NN control flowers NNS flower painted VVN paint with IN with sunscreen NN sunscreen solution NN solution that WDT that did VVD do not RB not contain VV contain the DT the UV NP UV absorbing VVG absorb compound NN compound . SENT . The DT the sunscreen NN sunscreen technique NN technique could MD could be VB be useful JJ useful for IN for determining VVG determine the DT the response NN response of IN of a DT a wide JJ wide range NN range of IN of pollinators NNS pollinator to TO to the DT the UV NP UV component NN component of IN of spectral JJ spectral reflectance NN reflectance in IN in flowers NNS flower and CC and could MD could be VB be used VVN use to TO to test VV test the DT the functional JJ functional significance NN significance of IN of UV-contrasting VVG `` `` `` nectar NN nectar guide NN guide '' '' '' patterns NNS pattern . SENT . Studies NNS study on IN on the DT the effect NN effect of IN of different JJ different modes NNS mode of IN of honeybee NN honeybee pollination NN pollination on IN on oil NN oil content NN content in IN in seeds NNS seed of IN of sunflower NN sunflower Helianthus NN helianthus annus NN L. NP L. indicated VVD indicate that DT that oil NN oil content NN content varied VVN vary between IN between 22.15 CD @card@ to TO to 36.30 CD @card@ per IN per cent NN cent . SENT . The DT the oil NN oil content NN content was VBD be higher JJR high in IN in hand+insect NN pollination NN pollination ( ( ( 36.30 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) followed VVN follow by IN by open JJ open to TO to all DT all insect NN insect pollination NN pollination ( ( ( 32.43 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the Apis NP mellifera NN pollinated VVN pollinate seeds NNS seed produced VVN produce ( ( ( 30.96 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) more JJR more oil NN oil as IN as compared VVN compare to TO to Apis NP cerana NN indica NN ( ( ( 28.13 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) over IN over self NN self pollinated VVN pollinate ( ( ( 22.15 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) and CC and hand VV hand pollinated VVN pollinate seeds NNS seed ( ( ( 26.90 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) . SENT . Human JJ human envenomation NN caused VVN cause by IN by bee NN bee stings NNS sting has VHZ have been VBN be reported VVN report to TO to cause VV cause acute JJ acute renal JJ renal failure NN failure and CC and the DT the pathogenetic JJ pathogenetic mechanisms NNS mechanism of IN of these DT these renal JJ renal functional JJ functional changes NNS change are VBP be still RB still unclear JJ unclear . SENT . Bee NP Bee venom NN venom is VBZ be also RB also a DT a complex JJ complex mixture NN mixture of IN of enzymes NNS enzyme and CC and proteins NNS protein . SENT . Thus RB thus , , , this DT this study NN study was VBD be conducted VVN conduct to TO to examine VV examine the DT the effects NNS effect of IN of bee NN bee venom NN venom ( ( ( BV NP BV , , , Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) fractions NNS fraction on IN on apical JJ apical transporters NNS transporter ' POS ' activity NN activity and CC and its PP$ its related JJ related signal NN signal pathways NNS pathway in IN in primary JJ primary cultured JJ cultured renal JJ renal proximal JJ proximate tubule NN tubule cells NNS cell . SENT . Whole JJ whole BV NP BV was VBD be extracted VVN extract into IN into three CD three fractions NNS fraction according VVG accord to TO to solubility NN solubility ( ( ( a DT a water-soluble JJ water-soluble fraction NN fraction ( ( ( BVA NP BVA ) ) ) , , , an DT an ethylacetate-soluble JJ fraction NN fraction ( ( ( BVE NP ) ) ) , , , and CC and a DT a hexane-soluble JJ fraction NN fraction ( ( ( BVH NP ) ) ) ) ) ) . SENT . BVA NP BVA fraction NN fraction was VBD be further RB farther separated VVN separate to TO to three CD three portions NNS portion according VVG accord to TO to molecular JJ molecular weights NNS weight : : : BF1 JJ ( ( ( > SYM > 20 CD @card@ kD NN ) ) ) , , , BF2 JJ ( ( ( 10-20 CD @card@ kD NN ) ) ) , , , and CC and BF3 NP ( ( ( < SYM < 10 CD @card@ kD NN ) ) ) . SENT . Each DT each fraction NN fraction was VBD be treated VVN treat to TO to the DT the PTCs NN to TO to the DT the ratio NN ratio of IN of BV NP BV ( ( ( 1 CD 1 mug/ml NN ) ) ) . SENT . BVA NP BVA ( ( ( 930 CD @card@ ng/ml NN ) ) ) significantly RB significantly decreased VVD decrease cell NN cell viability NN viability , , , but CC but BVH NP ( ( ( 27 CD @card@ ng/ml NN ) ) ) and CC and BVE NP ( ( ( 43 CD @card@ ng/ml NN ) ) ) did VVD do not RB not . SENT . BF3 NP ( ( ( 710 CD @card@ ng/ml NN ) ) ) among IN amongst BVA NP BVA fractions NNS fraction predominantly RB predominantly decreased VVD decrease cell NN cell viability NN viability and CC and inhibited VVD inhibit alpha NN alpha -methyl-D-glucopyranoside NN ( ( ( alpha-MG NP ) ) ) , , , phosphate NN phosphate ( ( ( Pi NP Pi ) ) ) , , , and CC and Na+ NP uptake NN uptake . SENT . In IN in addition NN addition , , , BF3 NP increased VVD increase ( ( ( 3H JJ ) ) ) arachidonic JJ acid NN acid release NN release , , , lipid NN lipid peroxide NN peroxide formation NN formation , , , and CC and Ca2+ NP uptake NN uptake . SENT . These DT these effects NNS effect of IN of BF3 NP were VBD be blocked VVN block by IN by mepacrine NN mepacrine and CC and AACOCF3 JJ ( ( ( phospholipase JJ A2 JJ inhibitors NNS inhibiter ) ) ) or CC or N-acetylcysteine NP , , , vitamin NN vitamin C NP C , , , and CC and vitamin NN vitamin E NN E ( ( ( antioxidants NNS antioxidant ) ) ) . SENT . In IN in conclusion NN conclusion , , , BF3 NP ( ( ( < SYM < 10 CD @card@ kD NN ) ) ) among IN amongst BV NP BV fractions NNS fraction is VBZ be the DT the most RBS most effective JJ effective portion NN portion in IN in BV-induced VVN inhibition NN inhibition of IN of alpha NN alpha -MG NN , , , Pi NP Pi , , , and CC and Na+ NP uptake NN uptake and CC and these DT these effects NNS effect of IN of BF3 NP are VBP be associated VVN associate with IN with phospholipase JJ A2-oxidative JJ stress-Ca2+ NN signal NN signal cascade NN cascade in IN in the DT the primary JJ primary cultured JJ cultured rabbit NN rabbit renal JJ renal proximal JJ proximate tubule NN tubule cells NNS cell . SENT . Vitellogenin NP is VBZ be a DT a female-specific JJ glucolipoprotein NN yolk NN yolk precursor NN precursor produced VVN produce by IN by all DT all oviparous JJ oviparous animals NNS animal . SENT . Vitellogenin NN expression NN expression is VBZ be under IN under hormonal JJ hormonal control NN control , , , and CC and the DT the protein NN protein is VBZ be generally RB generally synthesized VVN synthesize directly RB directly before IN before yolk NN yolk deposition NN deposition . SENT . In IN in the DT the honeybee NN honeybee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NP ) ) ) , , , vitellogenin NN is VBZ be not RB not only RB only synthesized VVN synthesize by IN by the DT the reproductive JJ reproductive queen NN queen , , , but CC but also RB also by IN by the DT the functionally RB functionally sterile JJ sterile workers NNS worker . SENT . In IN in summer NN summer , , , the DT the worker NN worker population NN population consists VVZ consist of IN of a DT a hive NN hive bee NN bee group NN group performing VVG perform a DT a multitude NN multitude of IN of tasks NNS task including VVG include nursing NN nursing inside IN inside the DT the nest NN nest , , , and CC and a DT a forager NN forager group NN group specialized VVN specialize in IN in collecting VVG collect nectar NN nectar , , , pollen NN pollen , , , water NN water , , , and CC and propolis NN propolis . SENT . Vitellogenin NP is VBZ be synthesized VVN synthesize in IN in large JJ large quantities NNS quantity by IN by hive NN hive bees NNS bee . SENT . When WRB when hive NN hive bees NNS bee develop VVP develop into IN into foragers NNS forager , , , their PP$ their juvenile JJ juvenile hormone NN hormone titers NNS titre increase NN increase , , , and CC and this DT this causes NNS cause cessation NN cessation of IN of their PP$ their vitellogenin NN production NN production . SENT . This DT this inverse JJ inverse relationship NN relationship between IN between vitellogenin NN synthesis NN synthesis and CC and juvenile JJ juvenile hormone NN hormone is VBZ be opposite JJ opposite to TO to the DT the norm NN norm in IN in insects NNS insect , , , and CC and the DT the underlying JJ underlying proximate JJ proximate processes NNS process and CC and life-history NN reasons NNS reason are VBP be still RB still not RB not understood VVN understand . SENT . Here RB here we PP we document VV document an DT an alternative JJ alternative use NN use of IN of vitellogenin NN by IN by showing VVG show that IN that it PP it is VBZ be a DT a source NN source for IN for the DT the proteinaceous JJ proteinaceous royal NN royal jelly NN jelly that WDT that is VBZ be produced VVN produce by IN by the DT the hive NN hive bees NNS bee . SENT . Hive NN hive bees NNS bee use VVP use the DT the jelly NN jelly to TO to feed VV feed larvae NNS larva , , , queen NN queen , , , workers NNS worker , , , and CC and drones NNS drone . SENT . This DT this finding NN finding suggests VVZ suggest that IN that the DT the evolution NN evolution of IN of a DT a brood-rearing VVG worker NN worker class NN class and CC and a DT a specialized JJ specialized forager NN forager class NN class in IN in an DT an advanced JJ advanced eusocial JJ insect NN insect society NN society has VHZ have been VBN be directed VVN direct by IN by an DT an alternative JJ alternative utilization NN utilization of IN of yolk NN yolk protein NN protein . SENT . The DT the present JJ present study NN study aimed VVN aim to TO to determine VV determine the DT the foraging VVG forage activity NN activity , , , load NN load carrying VVG carry capacity NN capacity and CC and foraging VVG forage trip NN trip frequency NN frequency of IN of Apis NP mellifera NN during IN during 1995-98 CD @card@ showed VVD show similar JJ similar diurnal JJ diurnal pattern NN pattern in IN in respect NN respect of IN of number NN number of IN of pollen NN pollen foragers NNS forager , , , pollen NN pollen load NN load size NN size and CC and number NN number of IN of pollen NN pollen foraging VVG forage trips NNS trip on IN on one CD one hand NN hand and CC and number NN number of IN of nectar NN nectar foragers NNS forager , , , nectar NN nectar load NN load size NN size and CC and nectar NN nectar foraging VVG forage trips NNS trip on IN on the DT the other JJ other hand NN hand . SENT . However RB however , , , minimum JJ minimum foraging VVG forage index NN index was VBD be observed VVN observe on IN on mid JJ mid day NN day . SENT . Comparatively RB comparatively , , , the DT the foraging VVG forage performance NN performance of IN of A. NP A. mellifera NN was VBD be better JJR good during IN during 1997-98 CD @card@ than IN than previous JJ previous years NNS year 1995-97 CD @card@ of IN of the DT the study NN study period NN period . SENT . Adult NN adult death NN death 's POS 's head NN head hawkmoths NNS ( ( ( Acherontia NP species NNS specie ) ) ) have VHP have a DT a unique JJ unique feeding NN feeding biology NN biology as IN as cleptoparasites NNS of IN of honeybees NNS honeybee , , , stealing VVG steal honey NN honey from IN from the DT the combs VVZ comb , , , rather RB rather than IN than imbibing VVG imbibe nectar NN nectar from IN from flowers NNS flower . SENT . The DT the moths NNS moth have VHP have a DT a range NN range of IN of features NNS feature , , , both DT both morphological JJ morphologic and CC and behavioural NN , , , that WDT that enable VVP enable them PP them to TO to successfully RB successfully enter VV enter , , , feed VV feed and CC and escape VV escape from IN from the DT the colonies NNS colony . SENT . These DT these adaptations NNS adaptation may MD may vary VV vary among IN amongst the DT the three CD three Acherontia NP species NNS specie and CC and allow VV allow them PP them each DT each to TO to target VV target different JJ different species NNS specie of IN of honeybee NN honeybee . SENT . A DT a cladistic JJ analysis NN analysis is VBZ be presented VVN present of IN of the DT the hawkmoths NNS of IN of tribe NN tribe Acherontiini NP . SENT . The DT the study NN study aims VVZ aim to TO to resolve VV resolve the DT the relationships NNS relationship of IN of the DT the genera NNS genus and CC and species NNS specie of IN of Acherontiini NP , , , with IN with a DT a particular JJ particular focus NN focus on IN on the DT the three CD three species NNS specie of IN of Acherontia NP . SENT . The DT the dataset NN comprises VVZ comprise sixty-five CD characters NNS character derived VVN derive from IN from adult NN adult , , , larval JJ larval and CC and pupal JJ pupal morphology NN morphology , , , and CC and larva NN larva host NN host -plant NN biology NN biology . SENT . These DT these data NNS datum are VBP be analysed VVN analyse using VVG use equal JJ equal weighting NN weighting and CC and implied JJ implied weighting NN weighting . SENT . Acherontiini NP and CC and each DT each constituent JJ constituent genus NN genus are VBP be recovered VVN recover as IN as monophyletic JJ monophyletic . SENT . However RB however , , , within IN within Coelonia NP , , , there EX there is VBZ be ambiguity NN ambiguity in IN in that IN that the DT the sister-species NN relationships NNS relationship C. NP C. brevis NN brewis + SYM + C. LS C. fulvinotata NN and CC and C. NP C. fulvinotata NN + SYM + C. LS C. solani NNS are VBP be equally RB equally parsimonious JJ parsimonious under IN under both DT both weighting NN weighting schemes NNS scheme . SENT . Furthermore RB furthermore , , , under IN under equal JJ equal weighting NN weighting Agrius NP is VBZ be placed VVN place equally RB equally parsimoniously JJ as IN as the DT the sister JJ sister group NN group of IN of either DT either Acherontia NP + SYM + Coelonia NP or CC or Callosphingia NP . SENT . Under IN under implied JJ implied weighting NN weighting , , , however RB however , , , only RB only the DT the latter JJ latter relationship NN relationship is VBZ be most RBS most parsimonious JJ parsimonious ( ( ( fit VV fit ) ) ) . SENT . Within IN within Acherontia NP , , , A. NP A. atropos NP and CC and A. NP A. styx NN are VBP be always RB always recovered VVN recover as IN as sister JJ sister species NNS specie to TO to the DT the exclusion NN exclusion of IN of A. NP A. lachesis NN . SENT . The DT the results NNS result of IN of the DT the phylogenetic JJ phyletic analysis NN analysis provide VVP provide an DT an objective JJ objective basis NN basis for IN for future JJ future studies NNS study of IN of the DT the unique JJ unique cleptoparasitic JJ association NN association of IN of these DT these moths NNS moth . SENT . Humans NNS human lose VVP lose colour NN colour vision NN vision at IN at night NN night and CC and it PP it has VHZ have often RB often been VBN be assumed VVN assume that IN that this DT this happens VVZ happen to TO to other JJ other animals NNS animal as IN as well RB well . SENT . It PP it is VBZ be not RB not true JJ true of IN of nocturnal JJ nocturnal moths NNS moth , , , however RB however : : : a DT a recent JJ recent study NN study has VHZ have shown VVN show that IN that the DT the elephant NN elephant hawk NN hawk moth NN moth makes VVZ make use NN use of IN of trichromatic JJ trichromatic colour NN colour vision NN vision when WRB when seeking VVG seek flowers NNS flower by IN by starlight NN starlight . SENT . Insects NNS insect are VBP be suitable JJ suitable model NN model organisms NNS organism for IN for studying VVG study mechanisms NNS mechanism underlying VVG underlie olfactory NN olfactory coding VVG code and CC and olfactory JJ olfactory learning NN learning , , , by IN by their PP$ their unique JJ unique adaptation NN adaptation to TO to host NN host plants NNS plant in IN in which WDT which the DT the chemical NN chemical senses NNS sense are VBP be essential JJ essential . SENT . Recent JJ Recent molecular JJ molecular biological JJ biological studies NNS study have VHP have shown VVN show that IN that a DT a large JJ large number NN number of IN of genes NNS gene in IN in insects NNS insect and CC and other JJ other organisms NNS organism are VBP be coding VVG code for IN for olfactory JJ olfactory receptor NN receptor proteins NNS protein . SENT . In IN in general JJ general , , , one CD one receptor NN receptor type NN type seems VVZ seem to TO to be VB be expressed VVN express in IN in each DT each neurone NN neuron . SENT . The DT the functional JJ functional characterisations NNS characterization of IN of olfactory JJ olfactory receptor NN receptor neurones NNS neuron have VHP have been VBN be extensive JJ extensive in IN in certain JJ certain insect NN insect species NNS specie , , , demonstrating VVG demonstrate a DT a fine-tuning NN fine-tuning of IN of single JJ single neurones NNS neuron to TO to biologically RB biologically relevant JJ relevant odourants NNS ; : ; both DT both insect NN insect and CC and plant NN plant produced VVD produce volatiles NNS . SENT . Stained VVN stain neurones NNS neuron of IN of the DT the same JJ same functional JJ functional type NN type have VHP have been VBN be shown VVN show to TO to project VV project in IN in one CD one and CC and the DT the same JJ same glomerular JJ glomerular unit NN unit in IN in the DT the primary JJ primary olfactory JJ olfactory centre NN center , , , the DT the antennal JJ lobe NN lobe . SENT . This DT this corresponds VVZ correspond to TO to molecular JJ molecular biological JJ biological studies NNS study , , , showing VVG show projections NNS projection in IN in one CD one glomerulus NN glomerulus by IN by neurones NNS neuron expressing VVG express the DT the same JJ same receptor NN receptor type NN type . SENT . Comparison NN comparison of IN of these DT these findings NNS finding with IN with physiological JJ physiological and CC and morphological JJ morphologic characterisations NNS characterization of IN of antennal JJ lobe NN lobe neurones NNS neuron has VHZ have indicated VVN indicate correspondence NN correspondence between IN between input NN input and CC and output NN output of IN of the DT the glomerular JJ glomerular units NNS unit . SENT . Examples NNS example are VBP be presented VVN present from IN from studies NNS study of IN of heliothine JJ moths NNS moth . SENT . From IN from the DT the antennal JJ lobe NN lobe , , , the DT the olfactory JJ olfactory information NN information is VBZ be further RBR further conveyed VVD convey to TO to the DT the mushroom NN mushroom bodies NNS body , , , particularly RB particularly important JJ important for IN for learning VVG learn , , , and CC and the DT the lateral JJ lateral protocerebrum NN , , , a DT a premotoric JJ area NN area . SENT . The DT the three CD three brain NN brain areas NNS area are VBP be regions NNS region of IN of synaptic JJ synaptic plasticity NN plasticity important JJ important in IN in learning VVG learn of IN of odours NNS odour , , , which WDT which is VBZ be well RB well studied VVN study in IN in the DT the honeybee NN honeybee but CC but also RB also in IN in species NNS specie of IN of moths NNS moth . SENT . The DT the reproduction NN reproduction of IN of pyrethroid-resistant JJ Varroa NP destructor NN destructor mite NN mite , , , a DT a brood NN brood parasite NN parasite of IN of honey NN honey bees NNS bee , , , was VBD be observed VVN observe in IN in Weslaco NP Weslaco , , , Texas NP Texas , , , and CC and the DT the results NNS result compared VVN compare with IN with known VVN know susceptible JJ susceptible mite NN mite populations NNS population from IN from other JJ other studies NNS study . SENT . Seven CD Seven Apis NP mellifera NN colonies NNS colony that WDT that had VHD have mite NN mite populations NNS population resistant JJ resistant to TO to the DT the acaricide NN Apistan NP ( ( ( R NP R ) ) ) were VBD be used VVN use . SENT . Pyrethroid-resistance NN was VBD be confirmed VVN confirm when WRB when only RB only 17 CD @card@ % NN % rather RB rather than IN than 90 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of mites NNS mite confined VVN confine in IN in dishes NNS dish containing VVG contain Apistan NP ( ( ( R NP R ) ) ) died VVD die after IN after 12 CD @card@ h NN h of IN of exposure NN exposure . SENT . The DT the average JJ average number NN number of IN of eggs NNS egg laid VVN lay by IN by resistant JJ resistant mites NNS mite invading VVG invade worker NN worker and CC and drone NN drone cells NNS cell was VBD be 4.4 CD @card@ and CC and 5.4 CD @card@ respectively RB respectively . SENT . This DT this is VBZ be similar JJ similar to TO to the DT the number NN number of IN of eggs NNS egg laid VVN lay by IN by susceptible JJ susceptible mites NNS mite in IN in worker NN worker ( ( ( 4.4 CD @card@ -4.8 CD @card@ ) ) ) or CC or drone NN drone ( ( ( 4.7-5.5 CD @card@ ) ) ) cells NNS cell . SENT . Also RB also the DT the average JJ average number NN number of IN of fertilised VVN fertilize V. NP V. destructor NN destructor female NN female mites NNS mite produced VVN produce by IN by resistant JJ resistant mites NNS mite in IN in worker NN worker ( ( ( 1.0 CD @card@ ) ) ) and CC and drone NN drone ( ( ( 2.1 CD @card@ ) ) ) cells NNS cell were VBD be similar JJ similar to TO to the DT the number NN number produced VVN produce by IN by susceptible JJ susceptible mites NNS mite in IN in worker NN worker ( ( ( 0.9 CD @card@ ) ) ) and CC and drone NN drone ( ( ( 1.9-2.2 CD @card@ ) ) ) cells NNS cell . SENT . In IN in addition NN addition , , , no DT no major JJ major differences NNS difference between IN between the DT the resistant JJ resistant and CC and susceptible JJ susceptible mite NN mite populations NNS population were VBD be observed VVN observe in IN in either DT either worker NN worker or CC or drone NN drone cells NNS cell when WRB when six CD six different JJ different reproductive JJ reproductive categories NNS category and CC and offspring NN offspring mortality NN mortality rates NNS rate were VBD be compared VVN compare . SENT . Therefore RB therefore , , , it PP it appears VVZ appear that IN that there EX there is VBZ be little JJ little or CC or no DT no reproductive JJ reproductive fitness NN fitness cost NN cost associated VVN associate with IN with pyrethroid JJ resistance NN resistance in IN in V. NP V. destructor NN destructor in IN in Texas NP Texas . SENT . Published VVN publish documentation NN documentation of IN of insect NN insect pests NNS pest and CC and pathogens NNS pathogen associated VVN associate with IN with Alnus NP species NNS specie in IN in Africa NP Africa is VBZ be very RB very scarce JJ scarce . SENT . We PP we surveyed VVD survey damaging JJ damaging insects NNS insect and CC and pathogens NNS pathogen , , , and CC and arthropod NN arthropod natural JJ natural enemies NNS enemy on IN on Alnus NP acuminata NP acuminata and CC and A. NP A. nepalensis NN in IN in Kabale NP and CC and Mbale NP districts NNS district , , , Uganda NP Uganda between IN between March NP March 1999 CD @card@ and CC and August NP August 2000 CD @card@ in IN in order NN order to TO to identify VV identify the DT the range NN range and CC and relative JJ relative abundance NN abundance of IN of arthropods NNS arthropod and CC and pathogens NNS pathogen associated VVN associate with IN with the DT the Alnus NP species NN species . SENT . Frequently RB frequently encountered VVN encounter damaging JJ damaging insects NNS insect on IN on the DT the Alnus NP species NN species included VVD include Apis NP mellifera NP , , , Apion NP globulipenne NP , , , a DT a Systates NP sp NN . SENT . ( ( ( Coleoptera NP : : : Curculionidae NP ) ) ) , , , Phymateus NP viridipes NNS , , , a DT a Lobotrachelus NP sp NN . SENT . ( ( ( Coleoptera NP : : : Curculionidae NP ) ) ) , , , Coloborrtics NP corticina NN and CC and some DT some Chrysomelidae NP . SENT . Some DT some species NNS specie such JJ such as IN as Aphis NN aphis fabae NN , , , Parastictococcus NP multispinosus NN and CC and a DT a Cacopsylla NP sp NN . SENT . ( ( ( Homoptera NP : : : Psyllidae NP ) ) ) were VBD be observed VVN observe feeding VVG feed on IN on other JJ other agroforestry JJ tree NN tree species NNS specie and/or NN crops NNS crop although IN although they PP they generally RB generally occurred VVD occur at IN at low JJ low population NN population intensities NNS intensity . SENT . Spiders NNS spider and CC and parasitic JJ parasitic Hymenoptera NP were VBD be the DT the most RBS most common JJ common natural JJ natural enemies NNS enemy . SENT . Diseases NNS disease were VBD be more RBR more severe JJ severe in IN in nurseries NNS nursery than IN than in IN in the DT the field NN field . SENT . Damping-off RB caused VVN cause by IN by Fusarium NP oxysporum NN , , , Septoria NP brown JJ brown leaf NN leaf spot NN spot and CC and stem VV stem canker NN canker were VBD be the DT the most RBS most serious JJ serious diseases NNS disease of IN of Alnus NP . SENT . The DT the array NN array of IN of damaging JJ damaging insects NNS insect and CC and pathogens NNS pathogen indicates VVZ indicate a DT a potential JJ potential danger NN danger to TO to the DT the cultivation NN cultivation of IN of Alnus NP species NNS specie in IN in Uganda NP Uganda as IN as adoption NN adoption of IN of the DT the species NN species for IN for agroforestry NN continues VVZ continue to TO to expand VV expand in IN in the DT the country NN country . SENT . In IN in view NN view of IN of the DT the increasing VVG increase demand NN demand for IN for Alnus NP species NNS specie for IN for agroforestry NN in IN in Uganda NP Uganda , , , regular JJ regular pest NN pest monitoring NN monitoring and CC and appropriate JJ appropriate control NN control strategies NNS strategy are VBP be necessary JJ necessary . SENT . This DT this experiment NN experiment assessed VVD assess the DT the efficacy NN efficacy of IN of rotenone NN rotenone and CC and oxalic JJ acid NN acid ( ( ( OA NP ) ) ) in IN in an DT an aqueous JJ aqueous sugar NN sugar solution NN solution in IN in controlling VVG control the DT the honeybee NN honeybee mite NN mite Varroa NP destructor NN destructor . SENT . Colonies NNS colony were VBD be populated VVN populate with IN with mite-infested VVN brood NN brood combs VVZ comb and CC and worker NN worker bees NNS bee . SENT . Three CD Three rotenone NN rotenone or CC or OA NP treatments NNS treatment administered VVN administer during IN during the DT the period NN period with IN with capped JJ capped brood NN brood on IN on 31 CD @card@ July NP July , , , 14 CD @card@ and CC and 18 CD @card@ August NP August resulted VVD result in IN in an DT an average JJ average efficacy NN efficacy of IN of 24.10 CD @card@ % NN % . SENT . In IN in untreated JJ untreated colonies NNS colony mite NN mite mortality NN mortality averaged VVD average 5.40 CD @card@ % NN % . SENT . No DT no significant JJ significant differences NNS difference ( ( ( P NN P > SYM > 0.05 CD @card@ ) ) ) were VBD be found VVN find between IN between the DT the rotenone NN rotenone and CC and OA NP treatments NNS treatment . SENT . Three CD Three OA NP treatments NNS treatment administered VVN administer on IN on 9 CD 9 , , , 12 CD @card@ and CC and 18 CD @card@ September NP September resulted VVD result in IN in a DT a 77.93 CD @card@ % NN % mite NN mite mortality NN mortality . SENT . An DT an increase NN increase in IN in mite NN mite drop NN drop ( ( ( P NN P < SYM < 0.05 CD @card@ ) ) ) was VBD be observed VVN observe at IN at 2 CD 2 and CC and 4 CD 4 days NNS day after IN after each DT each treatment NN treatment . SENT . OA NP applications NNS application in IN in broodless JJ colonies NNS colony resulted VVN result in IN in significantly RB significantly ( ( ( P NN P < SYM < 0.001 CD @card@ ) ) ) higher JJR high mite NN mite mortality NN mortality rates NNS rate ( ( ( 98.65 CD @card@ % NN % average NN average ) ) ) than IN than the DT the three CD three treatments NNS treatment of IN of rotenone NN rotenone or CC or OA NN in IN in colonies NNS colony with IN with capped JJ capped brood NN brood . SENT . The DT the dynamics NNS dynamics of IN of mite NN mite mortality NN mortality after IN after each DT each rotenone NN rotenone or CC or OA NP treatment NN treatment are VBP be discussed VVN discuss in IN in this DT this study NN study . SENT . Efficient JJ efficient division NN division of IN of labor NN labour is VBZ be one CD one of IN of the DT the main JJ main reasons NNS reason for IN for the DT the success NN success of IN of the DT the social JJ social insects NNS insect . SENT . In IN in honey NN honey bees NNS bee the DT the division NN division of IN of labor NN labour is VBZ be principally RB principally achieved VVN achieve by IN by workers NNS worker changing VVG change tasks NNS task as IN as they PP they age VVP age . SENT . Typically RB typically , , , young JJ young adult NN adult bees NNS bee perform VVP perform a DT a series NN series of IN of tasks NNS task within IN within the DT the colony NN colony before IN before ultimately RB ultimately making VVG make the DT the transition NN transition to TO to foraging VVG forage outside IN outside the DT the hive NN hive for IN for resources NNS resource . SENT . This DT this lifelong JJ lifelong behavioral JJ behavioral development NN development is VBZ be a DT a well-characterized VVN example NN example of IN of naturally RB naturally occurring VVG occur behavioral JJ behavioral plasticity NN plasticity , , , but CC but its PP$ its neural JJ neural bases NNS base are VBP be not RB not well RB well understood VVN understand . SENT . Two CD Two techniques NNS technique were VBD be used VVN use to TO to assess VV assess the DT the role NN role of IN of biogenic JJ amines NNS amine in IN in the DT the transition NN transition from IN from in-hive NN work NN work to TO to foraging VVG forage , , , which WDT which is VBZ be the DT the most RBS most dramatic JJ dramatic and CC and obvious JJ obvious transition NN transition in IN in honey NN honey bee NN bee behavioral JJ behavioral development NN development . SENT . First RB first , , , associations NNS association between IN between amines NNS amine and CC and tasks NNS task were VBD be determined VVN determine by IN by measuring VVG measure the DT the levels NNS level of IN of amines NNS amine in IN in dissected VVN dissect regions NNS region of IN of individual JJ individual bee NN bee brains NNS brain using VVG use HPLC NP analysis NN analysis . SENT . Second RB second , , , colonies NNS colony were VBD be orally RB orally treated VVN treat with IN with biogenic JJ amines NNS amine and CC and effects NNS effect on IN on the DT the onset NN onset of IN of foraging VVG forage were VBD be observed VVN observe . SENT . Octopamine JJ concentration NN concentration in IN in the DT the antennal JJ lobes NNS lobe of IN of the DT the bee NN bee brain NN brain was VBD be most RBS most reliably RB reliably associated VVN associate with IN with task NN task : : : high JJ high in IN in foragers NNS forager and CC and low JJ low in IN in nurses NNS nurse regardless RB regardless of IN of age NN age . SENT . In IN in contrast NN contrast , , , octopamine NN in IN in the DT the mushroom NN mushroom bodies NNS body , , , a DT a neighboring JJ neighboring neuropil NN , , , was VBD be associated VVN associate with IN with age NN age and CC and not RB not behavior NN behaviour , , , indicating VVG indicate independent JJ independent modulation NN modulation of IN of octopamine NN in IN in these DT these two CD two brain NN brain regions NNS region . SENT . Treating VVG treat colonies NNS colony with IN with octopamine NN resulted VVD result in IN in an DT an earlier JJR early onset NN onset of IN of foraging VVG forage in IN in young JJ young bees NNS bee . SENT . In IN in addition NN addition , , , octopamine JJ levels NNS level were VBD be not RB not elevated JJ elevated by IN by non-foraging VVG flight NN flight , , , but CC but were VBD be already RB already high JJ high on IN on return NN return from IN from the DT the first JJ first successful JJ successful foraging VVG forage trip NN trip and CC and subsequently RB subsequently remained VVD remain high JJ high , , , showing VVG show no DT no further JJ further change NN change with IN with foraging VVG forage experience NN experience . SENT . This DT this observation NN observation suggests VVZ suggest that DT that octopamine NN becomes VVZ become elevated JJ elevated in IN in the DT the antennal JJ lobes NNS lobe in IN in anticipation NN anticipation of IN of foraging VVG forage and CC and is VBZ be involved VVN involve in IN in the DT the release NN release and CC and maintenance NN maintenance of IN of the DT the foraging VVG forage state NN state . SENT . Foraging VVG forage itself PP itself , , , however RB however , , , does VVZ do not RB not modulate VV modulate octopamine JJ levels NNS level . SENT . Behaviorally RB related VVN relate changes NNS change in IN in octopamine NN are VBP be modulated VVN modulate by IN by juvenile JJ juvenile hormone NN hormone , , , which WDT which has VHZ have also RB also been VBN be implicated VVN implicate in IN in the DT the control NN control of IN of honey NN honey bee NN bee division NN division of IN of labor NN labour . SENT . Treatment NN treatment with IN with the DT the juvenile JJ juvenile hormone NN hormone analog NN analogue methoprene NN elevated VVD elevate octopamine NN and CC and octopamine NN treatment NN treatment 'rescued VVD ' '' ' the DT the delay NN delay in IN in behavioral JJ behavioral development NN development caused VVN cause by IN by experimentally RB experimentally depleting VVG deplete juvenile JJ juvenile hormone NN hormone in IN in bees NNS bee . SENT . Although IN Although the DT the pathways NNS pathway linking VVG link juvenile JJ juvenile hormone NN hormone and CC and octopamine NN are VBP be presently RB presently unknown JJ unknown , , , it PP it is VBZ be clear JJ clear that IN that octopamine JJ acts NNS act 'downstream NN ' '' ' of IN of juvenile JJ juvenile hormone NN hormone to TO to influence VV influence behavior NN behaviour and CC and that DT that juvenile JJ juvenile hormone NN hormone modulates VVZ modulate brain NN brain octopamine NN levels NNS level . SENT . A DT a working VVG work hypothesis NN hypothesis is VBZ be that IN that octopamine JJ acts NNS act as IN as an DT an activator NN activator of IN of foraging VVG forage by IN by modulating VVG modulate responsiveness NN responsiveness to TO to foraging-related JJ stimuli NNS stimulus . SENT . This DT this is VBZ be supported VVN support by IN by the DT the finding NN finding that IN that octopamine NN treatment NN treatment increased VVD increase the DT the response NN response of IN of bees NNS bee to TO to brood NN brood pheromone NN pheromone , , , a DT a stimulator NN stimulator of IN of foraging VVG forage activity NN activity . SENT . Establishing VVG establish a DT a role NN role for IN for octopamine NN in IN in honey NN honey bee NN bee behavioral JJ behavioral development NN development is VBZ be a DT a first JJ first step NN step in IN in understanding VVG understand the DT the neural JJ neural bases NNS base of IN of this DT this example NN example of IN of naturally RB naturally occurring VVG occur , , , socially RB socially mediated VVN mediate , , , behavioral JJ behavioral plasticity NN plasticity . SENT . The DT the next JJ next level NN level of IN of analysis NN analysis will MD will be VB be to TO to determine VV determine precisely RB precisely where WRB where and CC and how WRB how octopamine JJ acts NNS act in IN in the DT the nervous JJ nervous system NN system to TO to coordinate VV coordinate this DT this complex JJ complex social JJ social behavior NN behaviour . SENT . A DT a role NN role of IN of the DT the Honeybee NN honeybee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) as IN as a DT a prey NN prey of IN of the DT the Blue-cheeked VVN Bee NP Bee -eater NP ( ( ( Merops NP persicus NP Pall. NP ) ) ) was VBD be studied VVN study in IN in the DT the lower JJR low reaches NNS reach of IN of the DT the Zeravshan NP River NP River ( ( ( southern JJ southern Kizilkum NP , , , Uzbekistan NP Uzbekistan ) ) ) in IN in 1989-1991 CD @card@ . SENT . The DT the honeybees NNS honeybee were VBD be recorded VVN record in IN in food NN food of IN of the DT the Blue-cheeked VVN Bee-eater NN bee-eater in IN in 10 CD @card@ of IN of 13 CD @card@ localities NNS locality studied VVD study ranging VVG range from IN from 0.5 CD @card@ % NN % to TO to 54.7 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of the DT the total JJ total numberot NN prey NN prey items NNS item . SENT . There EX There was VBD be also RB also a DT a large JJ large geographical JJ geographical and CC and seasonal JJ seasonal variation NN variation in IN in the DT the consumption NN consumption rate NN rate of IN of honeybees NNS honeybee by IN by Blue-cheeked VVN Bee-eater NN bee-eater . SENT . A DT a strong JJ strong relationship NN relationship was VBD be fond JJ fond between IN between the DT the percentage NN percentage of IN of honeybees NNS honeybee in IN in the DT the diet NN diet of IN of nestlings NNS nestling and CC and distance NN distance from IN from apiary NN apiary . SENT . Multivariate JJ discriminant NN discriminant analyses NNS analysis of IN of nine CD nine standard JJ standard morphometric JJ characters NNS character of IN of honeybee NN honeybee workers NNS worker were VBD be used VVN use to TO to track VV track the DT the origin NN origin of IN of a DT a social JJ social parasitic JJ parasitic pseudo-clone NN of IN of thelytokous JJ laying VVG lay workers NNS worker that WDT that have VHP have invaded VVD invade colonies NNS colony of IN of Apis NP mellifera NN scutellata NN in IN in South NP South Africa NP Africa . SENT . Twenty CD Twenty social JJ social parasitic JJ parasitic workers NNS worker were VBD be sampled VVN sample from IN from both DT both of IN of two CD two infested VVD infest A. NP A. m. JJ scutellata NN colonies NNS colony at IN at two CD two distant JJ distant apiaries NNS apiary ( ( ( Graskop NP and CC and Heilbronn NP Heilbronn , , , about RB about 390 CD @card@ km NN apart RP apart ) ) ) and CC and compared VVN compare with IN with data NNS datum obtained VVN obtain from IN from 80 CD @card@ colonies NNS colony in IN in four CD four different JJ different geographical JJ geographical zones NNS zone ( ( ( zone NN zone I PP I : : : thelytokous JJ A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN morphocluster NN ; : ; zone NN zone II NP II : : : natural JJ natural thelytokous JJ hybrids NNS hybrid between IN between A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN and CC and A. NP A. m. JJ scutellata NN ; : ; zone NN zone III NP III : : : thelytokous JJ A. NP A. m. JJ scutellata NN morphocluster NN ; : ; zone NN zone IV NP IV : : : an DT an arrhenotokous JJ A. NP A. m. JJ scutellata NN morphocluster NN ) ) ) . SENT . Thelytokous JJ laying VVG lay workers NNS worker occur VVP occur naturally RB naturally in IN in zones NNS zone I-III NP . SENT . Highly RB highly significant JJ significant morphometric JJ differences NNS difference were VBD be found VVN find among IN amongst the DT the bees NNS bee in IN in the DT the four CD four zones NNS zone . SENT . The DT the data NNS datum support VVP support the DT the conclusion NN conclusion that IN that the DT the social JJ social parasitic JJ parasitic workers NNS worker belong VVP belong to TO to the DT the thelytokous JJ A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN morphocluster NN . SENT . It PP it is VBZ be most RBS most likely JJ likely that IN that the DT the social JJ social parasitic JJ parasitic workers NNS worker originated VVN originate from IN from the DT the heart NN heart of IN of the DT the Cape NP Cape bee NN bee 's POS 's distribution NN distribution range NN range in IN in the DT the Western JJ Western Cape NP Cape region NN region in IN in zone NN zone I. NP I. Morphometric NP analysis NN analysis makes VVZ make it PP it feasible JJ feasible to TO to restrict VV restrict the DT the possible JJ possible origin NN origin of IN of the DT the social JJ social parasitic JJ parasitic workers NNS worker from IN from the DT the natural JJ natural distribution NN distribution range NN range of IN of thelytoky JJ ( ( ( approximately RB approximately 240 CD @card@ 000 CD @card@ km2 NN ) ) ) down RB down to TO to about RB about 12 CD @card@ 000 CD @card@ km2 NN , , , which WDT which represents VVZ represent a DT a resolution NN resolution capacity NN capacity of IN of about RB about 95 CD @card@ % NN % . SENT . For IN for this DT this study NN study , , , we PP we constructed VVN construct methods NNS method to TO to detect VV detect the DT the number NN number of IN of Paenibacillus NP larvae NNS larva larvae NNS larva spores NNS swarm in IN in honey NN honey , , , and CC and found VVD find that IN that the DT the detection NN detection limit NN limit was VBD be 181 CD @card@ spores/g NN of IN of honey NN honey . SENT . Honey NN honey samples NNS sample were VBD be examined VVN examine using VVG use this DT this method NN method , , , and CC and we PP we found VVD find detectable JJ detectable levels NNS level of IN of P. NP P. l. JJ larvae NNS larva in IN in 31 CD @card@ of IN of 124 CD @card@ samples NNS sample from IN from Taiwan NP Taiwan . SENT . This DT this method NN method was VBD be also RB also used VVN use to TO to investigate VV investigate the DT the control NN control effects NNS effect of IN of oxytetracycline NN oxytetracycline ( ( ( OTC NP OTC ) ) ) on IN on American JJ American foulbrood NN ( ( ( AFB NP ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the results NNS result showed VVD show that IN that in IN in bee NN bee colonies NNS colony with IN with a DT a heavy JJ heavy AFB NP infection NN infection ( ( ( AFB JJ signs NNS sign > SYM > 500 CD @card@ ) ) ) , , , the DT the larval JJ larval mortality NN mortality might MD might reach VV reach 62 CD @card@ % NN % , , , and CC and the DT the spore NN swarm density NN density might MD might reach VV reach 1.2X106 NP spores/g NN of IN of honey NN honey . SENT . All DT all combs VVZ comb of IN of these DT these infected JJ infected colonies NNS colony were VBD be replaced VVN replace with IN with healthy JJ healthy ones NNS one and CC and divided VVN divide into IN into three CD three groups NNS group : : : one CD one group NN group was VBD be just RB just fed VVN feed syrup NN syrup ; : ; one PP one was VBD be medicated VVN medicate with IN with 125 CD @card@ mg NN mg OTC NP OTC ; : ; and CC and the DT the other JJ other one CD one was VBD be given VVN give 50 CD @card@ mg NN mg OTC NP OTC syrup NN syrup . SENT . Their PP$ their AFB NP signs NNS sign , , , larval JJ larval mortality NN mortality , , , and CC and spore NN swarm density NN density in IN in honey NN honey were VBD be counted VVN count weekly RB weekly . SENT . The DT the results NNS result showed VVD show that IN that 125 CD @card@ mg NN mg of IN of OTC NP OTC syrup NN syrup eventually RB eventually prevented VVD prevent AFB JJ recurrence NN recurrence ; : ; i.e. FW i.e. no UH no detectable JJ detectable levels NNS level of IN of AFB NP signs NNS sign or CC or spores NNS swarm and CC and normal JJ normal larval JJ larval mortality NN mortality were VBD be found VVN find in IN in the DT the investigating VVG investigate period NN period . SENT . However RB however , , , good JJ good AFB NP prevention NN prevention could MD could not RB not be VB be achieved VVN achieve with IN with treatment NN treatment using VVG use syrup NN syrup only RB only or CC or with IN with 50 CD @card@ mg NN mg OTC NP OTC medication NN medication . SENT . The DT the larval JJ larval mortality NN mortality of IN of these DT these groups NNS group decreased VVD decrease with IN with treatments NNS treatment but CC but then RB then increased VVD increase again RB again , , , and CC and detectable JJ detectable spores NNS swarm and CC and AFB JJ signs NNS sign were VBD be found VVN find in IN in most JJS most samples NNS sample in IN in 3 CD 3 -6 CD @card@ weeks NNS week post-treatment NN . SENT . Although IN Although the DT the caste NN caste concept NN concept has VHZ have been VBN be central JJ central to TO to our PP$ our understanding NN understanding of IN of the DT the organization NN organization of IN of work NN work in IN in social JJ social insect NN insect colonies NNS colony , , , the DT the concept NN concept has VHZ have been VBN be the DT the subject NN subject of IN of considerable JJ considerable recent JJ recent criticism NN criticism . SENT . Theoretically RB theoretically , , , it PP it has VHZ have been VBN be suggested VVN suggest that IN that temporal JJ temporal castes NNS caste are VBP be too RB too inflexible JJ inflexible to TO to allow VV allow a DT a colony NN colony to TO to rapidly RB rapidly reallocate VV reallocate labour NN labour in IN in response NN response to TO to changing VVG change conditions NNS condition . SENT . In IN in addition NN addition , , , several JJ several authors NNS author have VHP have suggested VVN suggest that DT that task NN task switching NN switching is VBZ be so RB so prevalent JJ prevalent that IN that it PP it precludes VVZ preclude even RB even the DT the possibility NN possibility of IN of a DT a rigidly RB rigidly controlled VVN control temporal JJ temporal caste NN caste system NN system . SENT . This DT this study NN study addresses VVZ address these DT these two CD two criticisms NNS criticism by IN by presenting VVG present and CC and testing VVG test a DT a revision NN revision of IN of the DT the temporal JJ temporal caste NN caste concept NN concept that WDT that recognizes VVZ recognize two CD two categories NNS category of IN of tasks NNS task : : : those DT those that WDT that require VVP require a DT a physiological JJ physiological specialization NN specialization for IN for their PP$ their efficient JJ efficient performance NN performance , , , and CC and those DT those that IN that all DT all workers NNS worker are VBP be equally RB equally able JJ able to TO to perform VV perform . SENT . Only RB only those DT those tasks NNS task requiring VVG require a DT a physiological JJ physiological specialization NN specialization are VBP be relevant JJ relevant to TO to the DT the temporal JJ temporal caste NN caste concept NN concept . SENT . Two CD Two castes NNS caste of IN of honeybees NNS honeybee were VBD be shown VVN show to TO to vary VV vary in IN in response NN response to TO to increased JJ increased nectar NN nectar influx NN influx , , , which WDT which requires VVZ require a DT a physiological JJ physiological specialization NN specialization , , , but CC but not RB not to TO to heat VV heat stress NN stress , , , which WDT which requires VVZ require no DT no specialization NN specialization . SENT . This DT this work NN work suggests VVZ suggest that IN that the DT the organization NN organization of IN of work NN work in IN in social JJ social insect NN insect colonies NNS colony reflects VVZ reflect a DT a compromise NN compromise between IN between selection NN selection for IN for the DT the benefits NNS benefit of IN of division NN division of IN of labour NN labour and CC and opposing VVG oppose selection NN selection for IN for flexibility NN flexibility in IN in task NN task allocation NN allocation . SENT . The DT the mitochondrial JJ mitochondrial DNA NN DNA of IN of Apis NP mellifera NN iberica NN , , , sampled VVN sample in IN in 72 CD @card@ beehives NNS beehive and CC and 20 CD @card@ localities NNS locality of IN of Galicia NP Galicia ( ( ( Northwest NP Northwest Spain NP Spain ) ) ) have VHP have been VBN be studied VVN study . SENT . A DT a fragment NN fragment of IN of the DT the subunit NN subunit I NN I of IN of the DT the cytochrome NN cytochrome oxidase NN oxidase gene NN gene and CC and the DT the intergenic JJ region NN region between IN between the DT the tRNAleu NN and CC and the DT the subunit NN subunit II NP II of IN of the DT the cytochrome NN cytochrome oxidase NN oxidase gene NN gene was VBD be amplified VVN amplify by IN by PCR NP PCR and CC and digested VVN digest with IN with the DT the endonucleases NNS HincII NP and CC and Dral NP respectively RB respectively . SENT . Ninety-five CD percent NN percent of IN of beehives NNS beehive from IN from Lugo NP Lugo and CC and La NP La Coruna NP ( ( ( the DT the two CD two Northern JJ northern provinces NNS province ) ) ) corresponds VVZ correspond to TO to the DT the western JJ western European JJ European lineage NN linage ( ( ( M NP M ) ) ) , , , whereas IN whereas in IN in Orense NP Orense and CC and Pontevedra NP ( ( ( the DT the two CD two Southern NP Southern provinces NNS province ) ) ) the DT the haplotypes NNS belonging VVG belong to TO to the DT the African JJ African lineage NN linage ( ( ( A NP A ) ) ) are VBP be more RBR more frequent JJ frequent . SENT . This DT this pattern NN pattern of IN of haplotype JJ distribution NN distribution was VBD be previously RB previously known VVN know for IN for other JJ other parts NNS part of IN of the DT the Iberian NP Iberian Peninsula NP Peninsula , , , although IN although in IN in Galicia NP Galicia it PP it shows VVZ show the DT the steepest JJS steep transition NN transition . SENT . The DT the presence NN presence of IN of seven CD seven A DT a haplotypes NNS in IN in Galicia NP Galicia suggests VVZ suggest the DT the occurrence NN occurrence of IN of more JJR more than IN than one CD one colonising VVG colonize episode NN episode from IN from the DT the South NP South . SENT . Further JJ further investigations NNS investigation are VBP be needed VVN need for IN for assessing VVG assess the DT the influence NN influence of IN of beekeeping NN , , , together RB together with IN with natural JJ natural processes NNS process , , , in IN in the DT the genetic JJ genetic composition NN composition of IN of bee NN bee populations NNS population of IN of Galicia NP Galicia . SENT . The DT the efficacy NN efficacy of IN of formic JJ formic acid NN acid in IN in a DT a gel NN gel matrix NN matrix was VBD be evaluated VVN evaluate in IN in two CD two groups NNS group of IN of honeybee NN honeybee colonies NNS colony . SENT . In IN in Group NP Group 1 CD 1 , , , a DT a dispenser NN dispenser with IN with 120 CD @card@ g NN g of IN of formic JJ formic acid NN acid ( ( ( 70 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) in IN in gel NN gel was VBD be placed VVN place on IN on the DT the brood NN brood combs VVZ comb and CC and another DT another dispenser NN dispenser with IN with the DT the same JJ same dose NN dose was VBD be located VVN locate on IN on the DT the hive NN hive bottom NN bottom ( ( ( total JJ total dose NN dose , , , 240 CD @card@ g NN g ) ) ) . SENT . Group NP Group 2 CD 2 received VVD receive two CD two doses NNS dose of IN of 240 CD @card@ g NN g of IN of formic JJ formic acid NN acid ( ( ( 70 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) in IN in gel NN gel and CC and each DT each application NN application was VBD be applied VVN apply in IN in two CD two dispensers NNS dispenser containing VVG contain 120 CD @card@ g NN g of IN of the DT the formic JJ formic acid NN acid solution NN solution each DT each and CC and they PP they were VBD be located VVN locate over IN over the DT the brood NN brood chamber NN chamber ( ( ( total JJ total dose NN dose , , , 480 CD @card@ g NN g ) ) ) . SENT . In IN in Group NP Group 2 CD 2 , , , the DT the period NN period between IN between both DT both applications NNS application was VBD be 15 CD @card@ days NNS day , , , and CC and the DT the efficacies NNS efficacy after IN after the DT the first JJ first and CC and both DT both applications NNS application were VBD be calculated VVN calculate . SENT . Significant JJ significant differences NNS difference were VBD be registered VVN register for IN for final JJ final efficacy NN efficacy between IN between both DT both groups NNS group . SENT . When WRB when final JJ final efficacy NN efficacy of IN of Group NP Group 1 CD 1 was VBD be compared VVN compare with IN with efficacy NN efficacy after IN after first JJ first application NN application of IN of Group NP Group 2 CD 2 , , , significant JJ significant differences NNS difference were VBD be found VVN find ( ( ( P=0.0005 NP ) ) ) . SENT . Same JJ same doses NNS dose in IN in different JJ different positions NNS position within IN within the DT the hive NN hive have VHP have different JJ different final JJ final efficacy NN efficacy . SENT . The DT the higher JJR high efficacy NN efficacy was VBD be registered VVN register when WRB when the DT the dispensers NNS dispenser were VBD be placed VVN place over IN over brood NN brood combs VVZ comb and CC and on IN on the DT the hive NN hive bottom NN bottom . SENT . It PP it is VBZ be suggested VVN suggest that IN that efficacy NN efficacy is VBZ be related VVN relate to TO to dispenser NN dispenser position NN position within IN within the DT the hive NN hive . SENT . Background NN background : : : The DT the ability NN ability to TO to manipulate VV manipulate the DT the genetic JJ genetic networks NNS network underlying VVG underlie the DT the physiological JJ physiological and CC and behavioural JJ repertoires NNS repertoire of IN of the DT the adult NN adult honeybee NN honeybee worker NN worker ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) is VBZ be likely JJ likely to TO to deepen VV deepen our PP$ our understanding NN understanding of IN of issues NNS issue such JJ such as IN as learning VVG learn and CC and memory NN memory generation NN generation , , , ageing VVG age , , , and CC and the DT the regulatory JJ regulative anatomy NN anatomy of IN of social JJ social systems NNS system in IN in proximate JJ proximate as RB as well RB well as IN as evolutionary JJ evolutionary terms NNS term . SENT . Here RB here we PP we assess VV assess two CD two methods NNS method for IN for probing VVG probe gene NN gene function NN function by IN by RNA NP RNA interference NN interference ( ( ( RNAi NP ) ) ) in IN in adult NN adult honeybees NNS honeybee . SENT . Results NNS result : : : The DT the vitellogenin NN gene NN gene was VBD be chosen VVN choose as IN as target NN target because IN because its PP$ its expression NN expression is VBZ be unlikely JJ unlikely to TO to have VH have a DT a phenotypic JJ phenotypic effect NN effect until IN until the DT the adult NN adult stage NN stage in IN in bees NNS bee . SENT . This DT this allowed VVD allow us PP us to TO to introduce VV introduce dsRNA NN in IN in preblastoderm JJ eggs NNS egg without IN without affecting VVG affect gene NN gene function NN function during IN during development NN development . SENT . Of IN of workers NNS worker reared VVN rear from IN from eggs NNS egg injected VVN inject with IN with dsRNA NN derived VVN derive from IN from a DT a 504 CD @card@ bp NN stretch NN stretch of IN of the DT the vitellogenin NN coding VVG code sequence NN sequence , , , 15 CD @card@ % NN % had VHD have strongly RB strongly reduced VVN reduce levels NNS level of IN of vitellogenin NN mRNA NN . SENT . When WRB when dsRNA NN was VBD be introduced VVN introduce by IN by intra-abdominal JJ injection NN injection in IN in newly RB newly emerged VVN emerge bees NNS bee , , , almost RB almost all DT all individuals NNS individual ( ( ( 96 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) showed VVD show the DT the mutant JJ mutant phenotype NN phenotype . SENT . An DT an RNA NP RNA -fragment NN with IN with an DT an apparent JJ apparent size NN size similar JJ similar to TO to the DT the template NN template dsRNA NN was VBD be still RB still present JJ present in IN in this DT this group NN group after IN after 15 CD @card@ days NNS day . SENT . Conclusion NN conclusion : : : Injection NN injection of IN of dsRNA NN in IN in eggs NNS egg at IN at the DT the preblastoderm JJ stage NN stage seems VVZ seem to TO to allow VV allow disruption NN disruption of IN of gene NN gene function NN function in IN in all DT all developmental JJ developmental stages NNS stage . SENT . To TO To dissect VV dissect gene NN gene function NN function in IN in the DT the adult NN adult stage NN stage , , , the DT the intra-abdominal JJ injection NN injection technique NN technique seems VVZ seem superior JJ superior to TO to egg NN egg injection NN injection as IN as it PP it gives VVZ give a DT a much RB much higher JJR high penetrance NN penetrance , , , it PP it is VBZ be much RB much simpler JJR simple , , , and CC and it PP it makes VVZ make it PP it possible JJ possible to TO to address VV address genes NNS gene that WDT that are VBP be also RB also expressed VVN express in IN in the DT the embryonic JJ embryonic , , , larval JJ larval or CC or pupal JJ pupal stages NNS stage . SENT . The DT the bacterial JJ bacterial pathogen NN pathogen Paenibacillus NN larvae NNS larva is VBZ be the DT the causative JJ causative agent NN agent of IN of American JJ American foulbrood NN disease NN disease in IN in honeybees NNS honeybee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) . SENT . A DT a touchdown NN touchdown nested VVN nest PCR NP PCR protocol NN protocol was VBD be developed VVN develop to TO to detect VV detect the DT the presence NN presence of IN of P. NP P. larvae NNS larva spores NNS swarm directly RB directly in IN in honey NN honey and CC and hive NN hive samples NNS sample . SENT . This DT this approach NN approach allows VVZ allow early JJ early discovery NN discovery of IN of the DT the bacteria NNS bacterium even RB even at IN at concentrations NNS concentration below IN below pathogenic JJ pathogenic levels NNS level , , , opening VVG opening the DT the door NN door to TO to new JJ new prophylactic JJ prophylactic approaches NNS approach against IN against American JJ American foulbrood NN and CC and real-time JJ real-time epidemiological JJ epidemiological studies NNS study . SENT . In IN in order NN order to TO to survive VV survive cold JJ cold northern JJ northern winters NNS winter , , , honeybees NNS honeybee crowd VVP crowd tightly RB tightly together RB together in IN in a DT a winter NN winter cluster NN cluster . SENT . Present JJ present models NNS model of IN of winter NN winter cluster NN cluster thermoregulation NN consider VVP consider the DT the insulation NN insulation by IN by the DT the tightly RB tightly packed VVN pack mantle NN mantel bees NNS bee as IN as the DT the decisive JJ decisive factor NN factor for IN for survival NN survival at IN at low JJ low temperatures NNS temperature , , , mostly RB mostly ignoring VVG ignore the DT the possibility NN possibility of IN of endothermic JJ endothermic heat NN heat production NN production . SENT . We PP we provide VVP provide here RB here direct JJ direct evidence NN evidence of IN of endothermic JJ endothermic heat NN heat production NN production by IN by 'shivering NN ' POS ' thermogenesis NN thermogenesis . SENT . The DT the abundance NN abundance of IN of endothermic JJ endothermic bees NNS bee is VBZ be highest JJS high in IN in the DT the core NN core and CC and decreases NNS decrease towards IN towards the DT the surface NN surface . SENT . This DT this shows NNS show that IN that core JJ core bees NNS bee play VVP play an DT an active JJ active role NN role in IN in thermal JJ thermal control NN control of IN of winter NN winter clusters NNS cluster . SENT . We PP we conclude VVP conclude that DT that regulation NN regulation of IN of both PDT both the DT the insulation NN insulation by IN by the DT the mantle NN mantel bees NNS bee and CC and endothermic JJ endothermic heat NN heat production NN production by IN by the DT the inner JJ inner bees NNS bee is VBZ be necessary JJ necessary to TO to achieve VV achieve thermal JJ thermal stability NN stability in IN in a DT a winter NN winter cluster NN cluster . SENT . Aims NNS aim : : : To TO To investigate VV investigate the DT the occurrence NN occurrence of IN of oxytetracycline NN oxytetracycline ( ( ( OTC NP OTC ) ) ) resistance NN resistance in IN in Melissococcus NP plutonius NN , , , which WDT which causes VVZ cause European JJ European foulbrood NN in IN in honeybee NN honeybee colonies NNS colony . SENT . Methods NNS method and CC and Results NNS result : : : Strains NNS strain of IN of M. NP M. plutonius NN were VBD be isolated VVN isolate from IN from diseased JJ diseased colonies NNS colony in IN in England NP England and CC and Wales NP Wales and CC and tested VVN test for IN for resistance NN resistance to TO to OTC NP OTC . SENT . The DT the minimum JJ minimum inhibitory JJ inhibitive concentration NN concentration ( ( ( MIC NP MIC ) ) ) of IN of OTC NP OTC was VBD be also RB also determined VVN determine for IN for selected VVN select isolates VVZ isolate . SENT . No DT no resistance NN resistance to TO to the DT the antibiotic NN antibiotic was VBD be found VVN find in IN in any DT any isolate VVP isolate and CC and the DT the average JJ average MIC NN MIC was VBD be found VVN find to TO to be VB be 3.9 CD @card@ mug NN mug ml-1 CD . SENT . Melissococcus NN plutonius NN was VBD be found VVN find to TO to be VB be susceptible JJ susceptible to TO to both DT both chlortetracycline NN chlortetracycline and CC and tetracycline NN tetracycline . SENT . Conclusions NNS conclusion : : : No DT no resistance NN resistance to TO to OTC NP OTC was VBD be found VVN find in IN in M. NP M. plutonius NN . SENT . Significance NN significance and CC and Impact NN impact of IN of the DT the Study NN study : : : This DT this study NN study demonstrated VVN demonstrate that IN that OTC NP OTC can MD can continue VV continue to TO to be VB be used VVN use to TO to treat VV treat European JJ European foulbrood NN and CC and that DT that resistance NN resistance may MD may not RB not explain VV explain why WRB why some DT some treatments NNS treatment fail VVP fail . SENT . This DT this paper NN paper describes VVZ describe the DT the development NN development of IN of a DT a rule-based VVN expert NN expert system NN system to TO to diagnose VV diagnose pests NNS pest of IN of honeybees NNS honeybee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. ) ) ) and CC and to TO to suggest VV suggest the DT the appropriate JJ appropriate treatments NNS treatment . SENT . The DT the system NN system can MD can be VB be used VVN use as IN as a DT a diagnostic JJ diagnostic tool NN tool for IN for beekeepers NNS beekeeper and CC and as RB as for IN for educational JJ educational and CC and extension NN extension purposes NNS purpose in IN in bee NN bee pathology NN pathology . SENT . It PP it provides VVZ provide a DT a diagnosis NN diagnosis based VVN base on IN on the DT the description NN description of IN of the DT the external JJ external appearance NN appearance or CC or behavior NN behaviour of IN of the DT the affected JJ affected colony NN colony . SENT . Corresponding JJ corresponding pictures NNS picture accompany VV accompany the DT the most RBS most important JJ important symptoms NNS symptom and CC and certain JJ certain measures NNS measure to TO to be VB be taken VVN take are VBP be proposed VVN propose . SENT . The DT the expert NN expert system NN system was VBD be evaluated VVN evaluate following VVG follow the DT the conventional JJ conventional expert NN expert system NN system evaluation NN evaluation methodologies NNS methodology . SENT . The DT the system NN system was VBD be implementing VVG implement using VVG use EXSYS NP for IN for Microsoft NP Microsoft Windows NNS window environment NN environment . SENT . The DT the Varroa NP mite NN mite , , , Varroa NP destructor NN destructor , , , is VBZ be recognized VVN recognize as IN as the DT the most RBS most serious JJ serious pest NN pest of IN of both DT both managed JJ managed and CC and feral JJ feral Western JJ Western honey NN honey bee NN bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) in IN in the DT the world NN world . SENT . The DT the mite NN mite has VHZ have developed VVN develop resistance NN resistance to TO to fluvalinate VV , , , an DT an acaricide NN used VVN use to TO to control VV control it PP it in IN in beehives NNS beehive , , , and CC and fluvalinate JJ residues NNS residue have VHP have been VBN be found VVN find in IN in the DT the beeswax NN beeswax , , , necessitating VVG necessitate an DT an urgent JJ urgent need NN need to TO to find VV find alternative JJ alternative control NN control measures NNS measure to TO to suppress VV suppress this DT this pest NN pest . SENT . Accordingly RB accordingly , , , we PP we investigated VVD investigate the DT the possibility NN possibility of IN of using VVG use the DT the fungus NN fungus , , , Hirsutella NP thompsonii NP , , , as IN as a DT a biocontrol JJ agent NN agent of IN of the DT the Varroa NP mite NN mite . SENT . Among IN amongst the DT the 9 CD 9 isolates VVZ isolate of IN of H. NP H. thompsonii NNS obtained VVN obtain from IN from the DT the University NP University of IN of Florida NP Florida and CC and the DT the USDA NP USDA , , , only RB only the DT the 3 CD 3 USDA NP USDA isolates VVZ isolate ( ( ( ARSEF NP 257 CD @card@ , , , 1947 CD @card@ and CC and 3323 CD @card@ ) ) ) were VBD be infectious JJ infectious to TO to the DT the Varroa NP mite NN mite in IN in laboratory NN laboratory tests NNS test . SENT . The DT the mite NN mite became VVD become infected JJ infected when WRB when it PP it was VBD be allowed VVN allow to TO to walk VV walk on IN on a DT a sporulating VVG sporulate H. NP H. thompsonii NN culture NN culture for IN for 5 CD 5 min NN min . SENT . Scanning VVG scan electron NN electron micrographs NNS micrograph revealed VVD reveal that IN that the DT the membranous JJ membranous arolium NN of IN of the DT the mite NN mite leg NN leg sucker NN sucker is VBZ be the DT the focus NN focus of IN of infection NN infection where WRB where the DT the fungal JJ fungal conidia NNS conidium adhered VVD adhere and CC and germinated VVD germinate . SENT . The DT the infected JJ infected mites NNS mite died VVD die from IN from mycosis NN mycosis , , , with IN with the DT the lethal JJ lethal times NNS time to TO to kill VV kill 50 CD @card@ % NN % ( ( ( LT50s NP ) ) ) dependent JJ dependent on IN on the DT the fungal JJ fungal isolates VVZ isolate . SENT . Thus RB thus , , , the DT the LT50s NP were VBD be 52.7 CD @card@ , , , 77.2 CD @card@ , , , and CC and 96.7 CD @card@ h NN h for IN for isolates VVZ isolate 3323 CD @card@ , , , 257 CD @card@ , , , and CC and 1947 CD @card@ , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . Passage NN passage of IN of H. NP H. thompsonii NP through IN through Varroa NP mite NN mite three CD three times NNS time significantly RB significantly reduced VVD reduce the DT the LT50s NNS of IN of isolates VVZ isolate 257 CD @card@ and CC and 1947 CD @card@ ( ( ( P NN P < SYM < 0.05 CD @card@ ) ) ) but CC but not RB not the DT the LT50 NN of IN of isolate VV isolate 3323 CD @card@ . SENT . The DT the fungus NN fungus did VVD do not RB not infect VV infect the DT the honey NN honey bee NN bee in IN in larval JJ larval , , , prepupal JJ , , , pupal JJ pupal , , , and CC and adult NN adult stages NNS stage under IN under our PP$ our laboratory NN laboratory rearing NN rearing conditions NNS condition . SENT . Our PP$ our encouraging JJ encouraging results NNS result suggest VVP suggest that IN that some DT some isolates VVZ isolate of IN of H. NP H. thompsonii NNS have VHP have the DT the potential NN potential to TO to be VB be developed VVN develop as IN as a DT a biocontrol JJ agent NN agent for IN for V. NP V. destructor NN destructor . SENT . However RB however , , , fungal JJ fungal infectivity NN infectiveness against IN against the DT the mites NNS mite under IN under beehive NN beehive conditions NNS condition needs VVZ need to TO to be VB be studied VVN study before IN before any DT any conclusion NN conclusion can MD can be VB be made VVN make . SENT . The DT the potential NN potential of IN of Hirsutella NP thompsonii NP Fisher NP Fisher and CC and Metarhizium NP anisopliae NP ( ( ( Metschinkoff NP ) ) ) as IN as biological JJ biological control NN control agents NNS agent of IN of the DT the parasitic JJ parasitic mite NN mite , , , Varroa NP destructor NN destructor Anderson NP Anderson and CC and Trueman NP Trueman was VBD be evaluated VVN evaluate in IN in the DT the laboratory NN laboratory and CC and in IN in observation NN observation hives NNS hive . SENT . In IN in the DT the laboratory NN laboratory , , , time NN time required VVN require for IN for 90 CD @card@ % NN % cumulative JJ cumulative mortality NN mortality of IN of mites NNS mite ( ( ( LT90 NP ) ) ) was VBD be 4.16 CD @card@ ( ( ( 3.98-4.42 CD @card@ ) ) ) days NNS day for IN for H. NP H. thompsonii NNS and CC and 5.85 CD @card@ ( ( ( 5.48-7.43 CD @card@ ) ) ) days NNS day for IN for M. NP M. anisopliae NN at IN at 1.1 CD @card@ X NN X 103 CD @card@ conidia NNS conidium mm-2 CD . SENT . At IN at a DT a temperature NN temperature ( ( ( 34 CD @card@ +- NN 1 CD 1 degreeC NN ) ) ) similar JJ similar to TO to that DT that of IN of the DT the broodnest NN in IN in a DT a honey NN honey bee NN bee colony NN colony , , , Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. , , , H. NP H. thompsonii NP ( ( ( LC90 NP = SYM = 9.90 CD @card@ X NN X 101 CD @card@ ( ( ( 5.86 CD @card@ -19.35 CD @card@ ) ) ) conidia NNS conidium mm-2 CD at IN at Day NP Day 7 CD 7 ) ) ) and CC and M. NP M. anisopliae NP ( ( ( LC90 NP = SYM = 7.13 CD @card@ X NN X 103 CD @card@ ( ( ( 2.80 CD @card@ -23.45 CD @card@ ) ) ) conidia NNS conidium mm-2 CD at IN at Day NP Day 7 CD 7 ) ) ) both CC both showed VVD show significant JJ significant virulence NN virulence against IN against V. NP V. destructor NN destructor . SENT . The DT the applications NNS application of IN of H. NP H. thompsonii NNS to TO to observation NN observation hives NNS hive resulted VVN result in IN in significant JJ significant mortality NN mortality of IN of mites NNS mite , , , and CC and reduction NN reduction of IN of the DT the number NN number of IN of mites NNS mite per IN per bee NN bee 21 CD @card@ and CC and 42 CD @card@ days NNS day post-treatments NNS . SENT . The DT the treatments NNS treatment did VVD do not RB not significantly RB significantly affect VV affect the DT the mite NN mite population NN population in IN in sealed JJ sealed brood NN brood . SENT . However RB however , , , the DT the fungus NN fungus must MD must have VH have persisted VVD persist because IN because infected JJ infected mites NNS mite were VBD be still RB still observed JJ observed ( ( ( 82.97 CD @card@ +- NN ( ( ( 0.6 CD @card@ ) ) ) % NN % ) ) ) 42 CD @card@ days NNS day post-treatment NN . SENT . In IN in addition NN addition , , , the DT the fungus NN fungus was VBD be found VVN find to TO to sporulate VV sporulate on IN on the DT the host NN host . SENT . A DT a small JJ small percentage NN percentage ( ( ( 2.86 CD @card@ +- NN ( ( ( 0.2 CD @card@ ) ) ) % NN % 0 CD 0 ) ) ) of IN of dead JJ dead mites NNS mite found VVN find in IN in the DT the control NN control hives NNS hive also RB also showed VVD show fungal JJ fungal infection NN infection , , , suggesting VVG suggest that IN that adult NN adult bees NNS bee drifted VVD drift between IN between hives NNS hive and CC and disseminated VVN disseminate the DT the fungus NN fungus . SENT . H. NP H. thompsonii NP was VBD be harmless JJ harmless to TO to the DT the honey NN honey bees NNS bee at IN at the DT the concentrations NNS concentration applied VVD apply and CC and did VVD do not RB not have VH have any DT any deleterious JJ deleterious effects NNS effect on IN on the DT the fecundity NN fecundity of IN of the DT the queens NNS queen . SENT . Microbial JJ microbial control NN control with IN with fungal JJ fungal pathogens NNS pathogen provides VVZ provide promising JJ promising new JJ new avenues NNS avenue for IN for control NN control of IN of V. NP V. destructor NN destructor and CC and could MD could be VB be a DT a useful JJ useful component NN component of IN of an DT an integrated JJ integrated pest NN pest management NN management program NN programme for IN for the DT the honey NN honey bee NN bee industry NN industry . SENT . Molecular JJ molecular analyses NNS analysis of IN of social JJ social behavior NN behaviour are VBP be distinguished VVN distinguish by IN by the DT the use NN use of IN of an DT an unusually RB unusually broad JJ broad array NN array of IN of animal JJ animal models NNS model . SENT . This DT this is VBZ be advantageous JJ advantageous for IN for a DT a number NN number of IN of reasons NNS reason , , , including VVG include the DT the opportunity NN opportunity for IN for comparative JJ comparative genomic JJ analyses NNS analysis that WDT that address VVP address fundamental JJ fundamental issues NNS issue in IN in the DT the molecular JJ molecular biology NN biology of IN of social JJ social behavior NN behaviour . SENT . One CD One issue NN issue relates VVZ relate to TO to the DT the kinds NNS kind of IN of changes NNS change in IN in genome NN genome structure NN structure and CC and function NN function that WDT that occur VVP occur to TO to give VV give rise NN rise to TO to social JJ social behavior NN behaviour . SENT . This DT this paper NN paper considers VVZ consider one CD one aspect NN aspect of IN of this DT this issue NN issue , , , whether IN whether social JJ social evolution NN evolution involves VVZ involve new JJ new genes NNS gene , , , new JJ new gene NN gene regulation NN regulation , , , or CC or both DT both . SENT . This DT this is VBZ be accomplished VVN accomplish by IN by briefly RB briefly reviewing VVG review findings NNS finding from IN from studies NNS study of IN of the DT the fish NN fish Haplochromis NP burtoni NP , , , the DT the vole NN vole Microtus NP ochrogaster NN , , , and CC and the DT the honey NN honey bee NN bee Apis NP mellifera NN , , , with IN with a DT a more RBR more detailed JJ detailed and CC and prospective JJ prospective consideration NN consideration of IN of the DT the honey NN honey bee NN bee . SENT . We PP we investigated VVD investigate the DT the radical JJ radical scavenging VVG scavenge activity NN activity of IN of propolis NN propolis by IN by ESR NP spectroscopy NN spectroscopy using VVG use spin NN spin trapping VVG trap method NN method . SENT . In IN in addition NN addition , , , we PP we examined VVD examine the DT the influence NN influence of IN of a DT a diet NN diet of IN of 2 CD 2 % NN % propolis NN propolis on IN on mice NNS mouse under IN under oxidative JJ oxidative stress NN stress . SENT . At IN at low JJ low concentrations NNS concentration , , , the DT the methanolic JJ extract NN extract of IN of propolis NN propolis exhibited VVN exhibit strong JJ strong scavenging VVG scavenge activity NN activity in IN in vitro NN towards IN towards both PDT both the DT the superoxide NN superoxide anion NN anion radical JJ radical , , , generated VVN generate by IN by the DT the hypoxanthine-xanthine NN oxidase NN oxidase reaction NN reaction , , , and CC and the DT the NO RB no radical JJ radical , , , generated VVN generate from IN from the DT the mixture NN mixture of IN of NOC-7 CD ( ( ( NO DT no generator NN generator ) ) ) and CC and carboxy JJ -PTIO NN ( ( ( spin VV spin trapping VVG trap agent NN agent ) ) ) . SENT . An DT an inhibitory JJ inhibitive effect NN effect of IN of propolis NN propolis on IN on lipid NN lipid peroxidation NN in IN in vivo RB vivo was VBD be observed VVN observe , , , as RB as determined VVN determine by IN by measurement NN measurement of IN of thiobarbituric JJ acid-reactive JJ substances NNS substance in IN in mouse NN mouse liver NN liver homogenate NN homogenate . SENT . The DT the level NN level of IN of vitamin NN vitamin C NP C in IN in the DT the brain NN brain of IN of mice NNS mouse under IN under oxidative JJ oxidative stress NN stress significantly RB significantly increased VVD increase compared VVN compare with IN with control NN control mice NNS mouse under IN under atmosphere NN atmosphere , , , which WDT which was VBD be not RB not observed VVN observe in IN in the DT the mice NNS mouse given VVN give 2 CD 2 % NN % propolis NN propolis . SENT . The DT the level NN level of IN of alpha NN alpha -tocopherol NN in IN in the DT the brain NN brain of IN of mice NNS mouse given VVN give 2 CD 2 % NN % propolis NN propolis significantly RB significantly increased VVD increase compared VVN compare with IN with control NN control mice NNS mouse under IN under atmosphere NN atmosphere , , , which WDT which was VBD be not RB not observed VVN observe in IN in mice NNS mouse under IN under oxidative JJ oxidative stress NN stress . SENT . SOD NN sod activity NN activity in IN in the DT the brain NN brain and CC and plasma NN plasma of IN of mice NNS mouse given VVN give 2 CD 2 % NN % propolis NN propolis significantly RB significantly decreased VVD decrease under IN under atmosphere NN atmosphere and CC and oxidative JJ oxidative stress NN stress compared VVN compare with IN with control NN control mice NNS mouse . SENT . These DT these results NNS result suggest VVP suggest that DT that propolis NN propolis possesses VVZ possess potent JJ potent antioxidant NN antioxidant activity NN activity in IN in vitro NN and CC and in IN in vivo RB vivo . SENT . We PP we examined VVD examine the DT the pollen NN pollen foraging VVG forage responses NNS response of IN of Africanized VVN Africanize and CC and European JJ European honey NN honey bee NN bee colonies NNS colony to TO to hexane NN hexane extractable JJ extractable compounds NNS compound of IN of Africanized VVN Africanize and CC and European JJ European larvae NNS larva ( ( ( brood NN brood pheromone NN pheromone ) ) ) . SENT . Brood NN brood pheromone NN pheromone was VBD be presented VVN present to TO to broodless JJ Africanized VVN Africanize and CC and European JJ European colonies NNS colony equalized VVN equalize for IN for numbers NNS number of IN of bees NNS bee , , , food NN food stores NNS store and CC and , , , empty JJ empty comb NNS coomb space NN space . SENT . The DT the pheromone NN pheromone significantly RB significantly increased VVD increase the DT the ratio NN ratio of IN of pollen NN pollen to TO to nonpollen JJ foragers NNS forager returning VVG return to TO to colonies NNS colony . SENT . There EX There was VBD be no DT no differential JJ differential pollen NN pollen foraging VVG forage response NN response to TO to pheromone NN pheromone racial JJ racial origin NN origin . SENT . European JJ European colonies NNS colony in IN in this DT this study NN study had VHD have a DT a significantly RB significantly higher JJR high proportion NN proportion of IN of pollen NN pollen to TO to nonpollen JJ foragers NNS forager entering VVG enter colonies NNS colony than IN than did VVD do Africanized VVN Africanize colonies NNS colony for IN for pheromone NN pheromone and CC and control NN control treatments NNS treatment . SENT . The DT the proboscis NN proboscis extension NN extension response NN response to TO to sucrose NN sucrose was VBD be used VVN use to TO to test VV test the DT the sensitivity NN sensitivity to TO to sucrose NN sucrose of IN of eight CD eight Africanized VVN Africanize ( ( ( most RBS most similar JJ similar to TO to Apis NP mellifera NP scutellata NP Lepeletier NP ) ) ) and CC and six CD six European JJ European colonies NNS colony ( ( ( most RBS most similar JJ similar to TO to Apis NP mellifera NP ligustica NP L. NP L. ) ) ) . SENT . Individual JJ individual sensitivity NN sensitivity to TO to sucrose NN sucrose has VHZ have been VBN be demonstrated VVN demonstrate as IN as a DT a neuro-sensory JJ correlate NN correlate of IN of foraging VVG forage behavior NN behaviour in IN in European JJ European bees NNS bee such JJ such that IN that individuals NNS individual that IN that forage NN forage for IN for pollen NN pollen have VHP have lower JJR low response NN response thresholds NNS threshold to TO to sucrose NN sucrose than IN than bees NNS bee that IN that forage NN forage for IN for nectar NN nectar . SENT . Africanized VVN Africanize bees NNS bee were VBD be significantly RB significantly more RBR more likely JJ likely to TO to respond VV respond to TO to lower JJR low concentrations NNS concentration of IN of sucrose NN sucrose than IN than European JJ European bees NNS bee . SENT . We PP we concluded VVD conclude that DT that sucrose NN sucrose response NN response threshold NN threshold was VBD be a DT a poor JJ poor predictor NN predictor for IN for comparative JJ comparative foraging VVG forage behavior NN behaviour of IN of these DT these races NNS race because IN because the DT the neuro-sensory JJ systems NNS system of IN of the DT the two CD two races NNS race may MD may be VB be differentially RB differentially `` `` `` tuned VVN tune '' '' '' by IN by thresholds NNS threshold to TO to defensive JJ defensive cues NNS cue . SENT . A DT a novel JJ novel cDNA NN sequence NN sequence encoding VVG encode a DT a new JJ new type NN type of IN of scorpion NN scorpion venom NN venom peptide NN peptide ( ( ( BmKAPi NP ) ) ) was VBD be first RB first isolated VVN isolate from IN from the DT the venom NN venom gland NN gland of IN of Buthus NP martensii NP Karsch NP by IN by cDNA NN library NN library screening NN screening combined VVN combine with IN with 5'-race NN . SENT . The DT the encoded VVN encode precursor NN precursor of IN of BmKAPi NP consisted VVD consist of IN of 89 CD @card@ amino NN amino acid NN acid residues NNS residue including VVG include a DT a signal NN signal peptide NN peptide of IN of 24 CD @card@ residues NNS residue , , , a DT a putative JJ putative mature JJ mature peptide NN peptide of IN of 64 CD @card@ residues NNS residue ( ( ( BmKAPi NP ) ) ) and CC and an DT an extra JJ extra basic JJ basic residue NN residue at IN at the DT the C-terminus NN which WDT which might MD might be VB be removed VVN remove in IN in the DT the post-translational JJ processing NN processing . SENT . BmKAPi NP is VBZ be stabilized VVN stabilize by IN by five CD five disulfide NN bridges NNS bridge , , , whereas IN whereas all DT all other JJ other disulfide-bridged VVN scorpion NN scorpion toxins NNS toxin described VVN describe are VBP be cross-linked VVN by IN by three CD three or CC or four CD four disulfide NN bridges NNS bridge . SENT . It PP it suggested VVD suggest the DT the three CD three -dimensinal JJ scaffold NN scaffold of IN of BmKAPi NP might MD might be VB be different JJ different from IN from other JJ other scorpion NN scorpion toxins NNS toxin . SENT . The DT the amino NN amino acid NN acid sequence NN sequence of IN of BmKAPi NP showed VVD show no DT no homology NN homology with IN with other JJ other scorpion NN scorpion venom NN venom peptides NNS peptide , , , but CC but shared VVD share a DT a little JJ little similarity NN similarity with IN with some DT some anticoagulant JJ anticoagulant peptides NNS peptide and CC and proteinase NN proteinase inhibitors NNS inhibiter isolated VVN isolate from IN from hookworm NN hookworm , , , honeybee NN honeybee or CC or European JJ European frog NN frog , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . RT-PCR NP analysis NN analysis showed VVD show that DT that BmKAPi NP mRNA NN could MD could be VB be induced VVN induce by IN by venom NN venom extraction NN extraction suggesting VVG suggest BmKAPi NP might MD might be VB be a DT a component NN component of IN of scorpion NN scorpion venom NN venom . SENT . These DT these results NNS result suggest VVP suggest that IN that BmKAPi NP is VBZ be a DT a new JJ new type NN type of IN of scorpion NN scorpion venom NN venom peptide NN peptide different JJ different from IN from other JJ other described VVN describe scorpion NN scorpion toxins NNS toxin in IN in structural JJ structural and CC and functional JJ functional aspects NNS aspect . SENT . We PP we previously RB previously identified VVD identify the DT the Mblk-1 CD gene NN gene in IN in the DT the honeybee NN honeybee brain NN brain , , , which WDT which encodes VVZ encode a DT a transcription NN transcription factor NN factor containing VVG contain two CD two DNA NN DNA binding JJ binding motifs NNS motif , , , termed VVD term RHF1 JJ and CC and 2 CD 2 ( ( ( Takeuchi NP Takeuchi et NP et al NP al . SENT . ( ( ( 2001 CD @card@ ) ) ) Insect NN insect Mol NP Mol . SENT . Biol. NP 121 CD @card@ , , , 134-140 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . Here RB here , , , we PP we identified VVD identify two CD two mouse NN mouse Mblk1 JJ homologues NNS homologue , , , Mlr1 JJ and CC and Mlr2 JJ . SENT . Both CC both encode VV encode proteins NNS protein containing VVG contain a DT a single JJ single DNA-binding JJ motif NN motif highly RB highly conserved VVD conserve with IN with RHF2 NN and CC and activate VV activate transcription NN transcription mediated VVN mediate by IN by a DT a DNA NN DNA element NN element recognized VVN recognize by IN by honeybee NN honeybee Mblk-1 CD . SENT . Mlr1 NN was VBD be expressed VVN express predominantly RB predominantly in IN in the DT the spermatocytes NNS spermatocyte of IN of the DT the testis NN testis , , , while IN while Mlr2 NN was VBD be expressed VVN express in IN in various JJ various tissues NNS toilet other JJ other than IN than testis NN testis . SENT . Mlr1 JJ transcripts NNS transcript were VBD be lost VVN lose in IN in the DT the testis NN testis of IN of W/Wv NP mutant JJ mutant mice NNS mouse , , , suggesting VVG suggest a DT a role NN role in IN in spermatogenesis NN spermatogenesis . SENT . The DT the present JJ present results NNS result show VVP show that IN that in IN in the DT the ovarioles NNS of IN of a DT a newly RB newly emerged VVN emerge ( ( ( 0 CD 0 day NN day ) ) ) queen NN queen of IN of A. NP A. mellifera NN only RB only two CD two regions NNS region may MD may be VB be distinguished VVN distinguish : : : a DT a proximal JJ proximate , , , short JJ short germarium NN and CC and a DT a very RB very long RB long distal JJ distal , , , terminal JJ terminal filament NN filament . SENT . As IN as the DT the queen NN queen matures VVZ mature and CC and gets VVZ get ready JJ ready for IN for the DT the nupcial JJ flight NN flight , , , the DT the germarium NN increases NNS increase in IN in lenght NN , , , advancing VVG advance towered JJ towered the DT the distal JJ distal end NN end , , , as IN as the DT the terminal NN terminal filament NN filament shortens VVZ shorten . SENT . The DT the ovarioles NNS of IN of queens NNS queen ready JJ ready to TO to mate NN mat_e ( ( ( 6 CD 6 to TO to 8 CD 8 days NNS day old JJ old ) ) ) have VHP have , , , already RB already one CD one or CC or two CD two ovarian JJ ovarian follicles NNS follicle , , , i.e. FW i.e. a DT a very RB very short JJ short proximal JJ proximate vitellarium NN , , , but CC but a DT a real JJ real vitellogenesis NN only RB only starts VVZ start after IN after the DT the fecundation NN fecundation . SENT . If IN if the DT the queen NN queen does VVZ do not RB not mate NN mat_e the DT the ovarioles NNS structure NN structure is VBZ be disrupted VVN disrupt ( ( ( 12-16 CD @card@ days NNS day old JJ old ) ) ) . SENT . In IN in mated VVN mate queen NN queen eggs NNS egg the DT the ovarioles NNS present JJ present three CD three differentiated VVN differentiate regions NNS region , , , from IN from the DT the apice NN to TO to the DT the basis NN basis : : : a DT a short JJ short terminal NN terminal filament NN filament , , , a DT a medium JJ medium size NN size germarium NN , , , and CC and a DT a very RB very long JJ long basal JJ basal vitellarium NN . SENT . As IN as the DT the eggs NNS egg are VBP be laid VVN lay , , , the DT the emptied VVN empty follicle NN follicle collapses NNS collapse , , , degenerates NNS degenerate and CC and produces VVZ produce a DT a corpus NN corpus luteum NN . SENT . Varroa NP destructor NN destructor infestation NN infestation varies VVZ vary with IN with climate NN climate conditions NNS condition and CC and race NN race of IN of Apis NP mellifera NN bees NNS bee . SENT . Africanized VVN Africanize bees NNS bee show VVP show greater JJR great tolerance NN tolerance to TO to varroa NN compared VVN compare to TO to bees NNS bee of IN of European JJ European races NNS race . SENT . Reproductive JJ reproductive ability NN ability of IN of female JJ female mites NNS mite , , , hygienic JJ hygienic behavior NN behaviour and CC and grooming VVG groom behavior NN behaviour are VBP be important JJ important factors NNS factor in IN in population NN population dynamics NNS dynamics of IN of this DT this parasite NN parasite . SENT . The DT the present JJ present study NN study shows VVZ show the DT the mortality NN mortality rate NN rate of IN of the DT the V. NP V. destructor NN destructor mite NN mite in IN in Africanized VVN Africanize and CC and Carnica NP bee NN bee colonies NNS colony in IN in Southern NP Southern Brazil NP Brazil . SENT . The DT the daily JJ daily proportion NN proportion of IN of dead JJ dead and CC and live JJ live mite NN mite fallen VVN fall on IN on the DT the bottom NN bottom of IN of the DT the hive NN hive was VBD be determined VVN determine when WRB when the DT the total JJ total mite NN mite population NN population was VBD be of IN of adult NN adult bees NNS bee . SENT . In IN in Africanized VVN Africanize bee NN bee colonies NNS colony the DT the daily JJ daily proportion NN proportion of IN of dead JJ dead mite NN mite was VBD be 6.30 CD @card@ % NN % , , , while IN while in IN in Carnica NP bee NN bee colonies NNS colony was VBD be 2.11 CD @card@ % NN % . SENT . The DT the daily JJ daily proportion NN proportion of IN of live JJ live mite NN mite on IN on the DT the bottom NN bottom of IN of the DT the hive NN hive was VBD be 2.45 CD @card@ % NN % and CC and 0.82 CD @card@ % NN % in IN in Africanized VVN Africanize and CC and Carnica NP bee NN bee colonies NNS colony , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . In IN in order NN order to TO to understand VV understand the DT the neuronal JJ processes NNS process underlying VVG underlie olfactory JJ olfactory learning NN learning , , , biophysical JJ biophysical properties NNS property such JJ such as IN as ion NN ion channel NN channel activity NN activity need VVP need to TO to be VB be analysed VVN analyse within IN within neurons NNS neuron of IN of the DT the olfactory JJ olfactory pathway NN pathway . SENT . This DT this study NN study analyses NNS analysis voltage-sensitive JJ ionic JJ ionic currents NNS current of IN of cultured JJ cultured antennal JJ lobe NN lobe projection NN projection neurons NNS neuron and CC and mushroom NN mushroom body NN body Kenyon NP Kenyon cells NNS cell in IN in the DT the brain NN brain of IN of the DT the honeybee NN honeybee Apis NN mellifera NN . SENT . Rhodamine-labelled VVN neurons NNS neuron were VBD be identified VVN identify in IN in vitro NN prior RB prior to TO to recording NN recording , , , and CC and whole-cell NN K+ NP and CC and Ca2+ NP currents NNS current were VBD be measured VVN measured . SENT . All DT all neurons NNS neuron expressed VVD express transient JJ transeunt and CC and sustained VVD sustain outward RB outward K+ NP currents NNS current , , , but CC but Kenyon NP Kenyon cells NNS cell expressed VVD express higher JJR high relative JJ relative amounts NNS amount of IN of transient JJ transeunt A-type NN K+ NP ( ( ( IK NP Ik , , , A NP A ) ) ) currents NNS current than IN than sustained JJ sustained delayed JJ delayed rectifier NN rectifier K+ NP current JJ current ( ( ( IK NP Ik , , , V NN V ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the current JJ current density NN density of IN of the DT the IK NP Ik , , , V NN V was VBD be significantly RB significantly higher JJR high in IN in projection NN projection neurons NNS neuron than IN than in IN in Kenyon NP Kenyon cells NNS cell . SENT . The DT the voltage-dependency NN of IN of K+ NP currents NNS current at IN at positive JJ positive membrane NN membrane potentials NNS potential was VBD be linear JJ linear in IN in Kenyon NP Kenyon cells NNS cell , , , but CC but N-shaped VVN in IN in projection NN projection neurons NNS neuron . SENT . Blocking VVG block of IN of voltage-sensitive JJ Ca2+ NP currents NNS current transformed VVD transform the DT the N-shaped JJ voltage-dependency NN into IN into a DT a linear JJ linear one NN one , , , indicating VVG indicate activation NN activation of IN of calcium NN calcium -dependent JJ K+ NP currents NNS current ( ( ( IK NP Ik , , , Ca NP Ca ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the densities NNS density of IN of currents NNS current through IN through voltage NN voltage -sensitive JJ Ca2+ NP channels NNS channel did VVD do not RB not differ VV differ between IN between the DT the two CD two neuron NN neuron classes NNS class and CC and the DT the voltage-dependency NN of IN of current JJ current activation NN activation was VBD be similar JJ similar . SENT . Projection NN projection neurons NNS neuron thus RB thus express VVP express higher JJR high calcium-dependent JJ K+ NP currents NNS current . SENT . These DT these analyses NNS analysis revealed VVD reveal that IN that the DT the various JJ various neurons NNS neuron of IN of the DT the honeybee NN honeybee olfactory JJ olfactory pathway NN pathway in IN in vitro NN have VHP have different JJ different current JJ current phenotypes NNS phenotype , , , which WDT which may MD may reflect VV reflect functional JJ functional differences NNS difference between IN between the DT the neuron NN neuron types NNS type in IN in vivo RB vivo . SENT . Background NN background In IN in this DT this study NN study , , , which WDT which summarizes VVZ summarize our PP$ our last JJ last 5 CD 5 years NNS year of IN of experience NN experience , , , we PP we evaluated VVD evaluate the DT the side-effects NNS side-effect of IN of ultra-rush NN venom NN venom immunotherapy NN immunotherapy and CC and the DT the possibility NN possibility to TO to define VV define some DT some risk NN risk factors NNS factor for IN for side-effects NNS side-effect as IN as age NN age , , , Hymenoptera NP venom NN venom used VVN use for IN for treatment NN treatment , , , treatment NN treatment phase NN phase , , , severity NN severeness of IN of prior JJ prior insect NN insect sting NN sting reaction NN reaction , , , concentration NN concentration of IN of skin NN skin test NN test positivity NN , , , and CC and level NN level of IN of specific JJ specific IgE NP . SENT . Methods NNS method In IN in our PP$ our protocol NN protocol on IN on day NN day 1 CD 1 , , , an DT an initial JJ initial venom NN venom dose NN dose of IN of 0.1 CD @card@ mug NN mug was VBD be followed VVN follow by IN by 1 CD 1 , , , 10 CD @card@ , , , 20 CD @card@ mug NN mug at IN at 30-min NN intervals NNS interval and CC and then RB then 30 CD @card@ and CC and 40 CD @card@ mug NN mug at IN at 60-min NN intervals NNS interval . SENT . Patients NNS Patient who WP who completed VVD complete this DT this protocol NN protocol received VVD receive two CD two booster NN booster injections NNS injection of IN of 50 CD @card@ mug NN mug on IN on day NN day 15 CD @card@ and CC and one CD one of IN of 100 CD @card@ mug NN mug on IN on day NN day 45 CD @card@ . SENT . Subsequently RB subsequently , , , monthly RB monthly 100 CD @card@ mug NN mug boosters NNS booster were VBD be given VVN give . SENT . Results NNS result Fifty-one JJ Fifty-one children NNS child ( ( ( 9.20 CD @card@ +- NN 3.41 CD @card@ years NNS year ) ) ) and CC and 207 CD @card@ adults NNS adult ( ( ( 40.62 CD @card@ +- NN 14.00 CD @card@ years NNS year ) ) ) underwent VVD undergo an DT an ultra-rapid JJ venom NN venom immunotherapy NN immunotherapy ( ( ( ultra-RVIT VV ) ) ) . SENT . Single JJ single ultra JJ ultra -RVIT NN was VBD be administered VVN administer to TO to 195 CD @card@ patients NNS patient : : : 69 CD @card@ with IN with honeybee NN honeybee , , , 123 CD @card@ with IN with yellow JJ yellow jacket NN jacket and CC and three CD three with IN with wasp NN wasp venoms NNS venom . SENT . Two CD Two venoms NNS venom were VBD be injected VVN inject into IN into 59 CD @card@ patients NNS patient : : : 42 CD @card@ with IN with yellow JJ yellow jacket NN jacket and CC and wasp NN wasp , , , 17 CD @card@ with IN with yellow JJ yellow jacket NN jacket and CC and honeybee NN honeybee . SENT . Four CD Four patients NNS patient received VVD receive the DT the three CD three venoms NNS venom . SENT . The DT the frequency NN frequency of IN of immediate JJ immediate systemic JJ systemic reactions NNS reaction ( ( ( SR NN SR ) ) ) was VBD be not RB not significantly RB significantly different JJ different between IN between adults NNS adult and CC and children NNS child : : : 11.2 CD @card@ % NN % vs. IN v. 10.8 CD @card@ % NN % . SENT . SR NN SR were VBD be experienced VVN experience more RBR more frequently RB frequently on IN on day NN day 1 CD 1 ( ( ( n NN n = SYM = 33 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . They PP they were VBD be uncommon JJ uncommon on IN on day NN day 15 CD @card@ ( ( ( n NN n = SYM = 2 LS 2 ) ) ) and CC and on IN on day NN day 45 CD @card@ ( ( ( n NN n = SYM = 1 LS 1 ) ) ) . SENT . No DT no late JJ late reactions NNS reaction have VHP have been VBN be observed VVN observe . SENT . Honeybee NN honeybee venom NN venom induced VVD induce significantly RB significantly more JJR more SR NN SR ( ( ( 30 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) vs. FW v. yellow JJ yellow jacket NN jacket ( ( ( 3.2 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) and CC and wasp NN wasp venom NN venom ( ( ( 6.1 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) . SENT . Among IN amongst the DT the 33 CD @card@ patients NNS patient who WP who experienced VVD experience a DT a SR NN SR on IN on day NN day 1 CD 1 , , , 24 CD @card@ had VHD have a DT a reaction NN reaction grade NN grade 1 CD 1 or CC or 2 CD 2 and CC and nine CD nine had VHD have a DT a reaction NN reaction grade NN grade 3 CD 3 or CC or 4 CD 4 . SENT . There EX There is VBZ be a DT a significant JJ significant risk NN risk for IN for patients NNS patient with IN with a DT a prior JJ prior reaction NN reaction grade NN grade 3 LS 3 or CC or 4 LS 4 to TO to experience VV experience a DT a SR NN SR during IN during venom NN venom immunotherapy NN immunotherapy ( ( ( VIT NP ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the strength NN strength of IN of positive JJ positive skin NN skin tests NNS test and CC and the DT the level NN level of IN of specific JJ specific IgE NN were VBD be not RB not related VVN relate to TO to an DT an increased JJ increased risk NN risk of IN of SR NN SR ( ( ( P NN P = SYM = NS NP NS ) ) ) . SENT . Conclusion NN conclusion Treatment NP Treatment with IN with honeybee NN honeybee extract NN extract induced VVD induce more JJR more SR NN SR than IN than the DT the treatment NN treatment with IN with yellow JJ yellow jacket NN jacket and CC and wasp NN wasp venom NN venom . SENT . Doses NNS dose increase VVP increase phase NN phase on IN on day NN day 1 CD 1 is VBZ be risk NN risk factors NNS factor for IN for SR NN SR of IN of ultra-RVIT NN , , , as RB as well RB well as IN as the DT the severity NN severeness of IN of the DT the prior JJ prior reaction NN reaction . SENT . Age NN age , , , degree NN degree of IN of positive JJ positive skin NN skin tests NNS test , , , and CC and specific JJ specific IgE NN are VBP be not RB not risk NN risk factors NNS factor . SENT . The DT the protein NN protein contents NNS content in IN in honey NN honey samples NNS sample of IN of different JJ different floral JJ floral origins NNS origin , , , commercialized VVN commercialize in IN in several JJ several states NNS state of IN of Brazil NP Brazil , , , were VBD be determined VVN determine using VVG use the DT the method NN method of IN of Bradford NP Bradford . SENT . The DT the spectra NN spectra of IN of pollen NN pollen of IN of the DT the honeys NNS honey collected VVN collect in IN in those DT those areas NNS area were VBD be studied VVN study , , , in IN in order NN order to TO to establish VV establish the DT the correlation NN correlation between IN between the DT the different JJ different botanical JJ botanical species NNS specie and CC and the DT the protein NN protein contents NNS content . SENT . The DT the physicochemical JJ physicochemical properties NNS property of IN of the DT the honeys NNS honey ( ( ( colour NN colour , , , moisture NN moisture , , , pH NN pH and CC and acidity NN acidity , , , lund NN test NN test , , , lugol NN test NN test , , , diastase NN diastase index NN index , , , reducing VVG reduce and CC and non-reducing VVG sugars NNS sugar and CC and hydroxymethylfurfural JJ contents NNS content ) ) ) were VBD be also RB also determined VVN determine . SENT . The DT the colorimetric JJ colorimetric determination NN determination of IN of the DT the protein NN protein content NN content of IN of honey NN honey samples NNS sample , , , using VVG use the DT the method NN method of IN of Bradford NP Bradford , , , was VBD be shown VVN show to TO to be VB be efficient JJ efficient and CC and it PP it allowed VVD allow the DT the detection NN detection of IN of elevated JJ elevated protein NN protein in IN in honey NN honey samples NNS sample of IN of Borreria NP verticillata NN , , , known VVN know in IN in Brazil NP Brazil as IN as `` `` `` vassourinha NP '' '' '' , , , from IN from Piaui NP State NP State . SENT . The DT the biogenic JJ amine NN amine neurochemical JJ octopamine NN is VBZ be involved VVN involve in IN in the DT the onset NN onset of IN of foraging VVG forage behaviour NN behaviour in IN in honey NN honey bees NNS bee . SENT . We PP we tested VVD test the DT the hypothesis NN hypothesis that IN that octopamine JJ influences NNS influence honey NN honey bee NN bee behavioural JJ development NN development by IN by modulating VVG modulate responsiveness NN responsiveness to TO to task-related JJ stimuli NNS stimulus . SENT . We PP we examined VVD examine the DT the effect NN effect of IN of octopamine JJ treatment NN treatment on IN on responsiveness NN responsiveness to TO to brood NN brood pheromone NN pheromone ( ( ( an DT an activator NN activator of IN of foraging VVG forage ) ) ) and CC and to TO to the DT the presence NN presence of IN of older JJR old bees NNS bee in IN in the DT the colony NN colony ( ( ( an DT an inhibitor NN inhibiter of IN of foraging VVG forage in IN in young JJ young bees NNS bee ) ) ) . SENT . Octopamine JJ treatment NN treatment increased VVD increase responsiveness NN responsiveness to TO to brood NN brood pheromone NN pheromone and CC and decreased VVD decrease responsiveness NN responsiveness to TO to social JJ social inhibition NN inhibition . SENT . These DT these results NNS result identify VVP identify octopamine NN both CC both as IN as an DT an important JJ important source NN source of IN of variation NN variation in IN in response NN response thresholds NNS threshold and CC and as IN as a DT a modulator NN modulator of IN of pheromonal JJ communication NN communication in IN in insect NN insect societies NNS society . SENT . We PP we speculate VVP speculate that DT that octopamine NN plays VVZ play more RBR more than IN than one CD one role NN role in IN in the DT the organisation NN organization of IN of behavioural JJ development NN development indicating VVG indicate a DT a very RB very high JJ high level NN level of IN of integration NN integration between IN between the DT the neurochemical JJ system NN system and CC and the DT the generation NN generation of IN of complex JJ complex behaviour NN behaviour . SENT . Previous JJ previous findings NNS finding showed VVD show that IN that high JJ high levels NNS level of IN of octopamine NN and CC and serotonin NN serotonin in IN in the DT the antennal JJ lobes NNS lobe of IN of adult NN adult worker NN worker honey NN honey bees NNS bee are VBP be associated VVN associate with IN with foraging VVG forage behavior NN behaviour , , , and CC and octopamine JJ treatment NN treatment induces VVZ induce precocious JJ precocious foraging VVG forage . SENT . To TO To better RBR better characterize VV characterize the DT the relationship NN relationship between IN between amines NNS amine and CC and foraging VVG forage behavior NN behaviour in IN in honey NN honey bees NNS bee , , , we PP we performed VVD perform a DT a detailed JJ detailed correlative JJ correlative analysis NN analysis of IN of amine NN amine levels NNS level in IN in the DT the antennal JJ lobes NNS lobe as IN as a DT a function NN function of IN of various JJ various aspects NNS aspect of IN of foraging VVG forage behavior NN behaviour . SENT . Flight NN flight activity NN activity was VBD be measured VVN measured under IN under controlled VVN control conditions NNS condition in IN in a DT a large JJ large outdoor JJ outdoor flight NN flight cage NN cage . SENT . Levels NNS level of IN of octopamine NN in IN in the DT the antennal JJ lobes NNS lobe were VBD be found VVN find to TO to be VB be elevated JJ elevated immediately RB immediately subsequent JJ subsequent to TO to the DT the onset NN onset of IN of foraging VVG forage , , , but CC but they PP they did VVD do not RB not change VV change as IN as a DT a consequence NN consequence of IN of preforaging VVG orientation NN orientation flight NN flight activity NN activity , , , diurnal JJ diurnal pauses NNS pause in IN in foraging VVG forage , , , or CC or different JJ different amounts NNS amount of IN of foraging VVG forage experience NN experience , , , suggesting VVG suggest that DT that octopamine NN helps VVZ help to TO to trigger VV trigger and CC and maintain VV maintain the DT the foraging VVG forage behavioral JJ behavioral state NN state . SENT . In IN in contrast NN contrast , , , levels NNS level of IN of serotonin NN serotonin and CC and dopamine NN dopamine did VVD do not RB not show VV show changes NNS change that WDT that would MD would implicate VV implicate them PP them as IN as either DT either causal JJ causal agents NNS agent of IN of foraging VVG forage , , , or CC or as IN as neurochemical JJ systems NNS system affected VVN affect by IN by the DT the act NN act of IN of foraging VVG forage . SENT . Serotonin NN serotonin treatment NN treatment had VHD have no DT no effect NN effect on IN on the DT the likelihood NN likelihood of IN of foraging VVG forage . SENT . These DT these results NNS result provide VVP provide further RB farther support VV support for IN for the DT the hypothesis NN hypothesis that IN that an DT an increase NN increase in IN in octopamine JJ levels NNS level in IN in the DT the antennal JJ lobes NNS lobe plays VVZ play a DT a causal JJ causal role NN role in IN in the DT the initiation NN initiation and CC and maintenance NN maintenance of IN of the DT the behavioral JJ behavioral state NN state of IN of foraging VVG forage , , , and CC and thus RB thus is VBZ be involved VVN involve in IN in the DT the regulation NN regulation of IN of division NN division of IN of labor NN labour in IN in honey NN honey bees NNS bee . SENT . Ecosystem NN ecosystem services NNS service are VBP be critical JJ critical to TO to human JJ human survival NN survival ; : ; in IN in selected JJ selected cases NNS case , , , maintaining VVG maintain these DT these services NNS service provides VVZ provide a DT a powerful JJ powerful argument NN argument for IN for conserving VVG conserve biodiversity NN . SENT . Yet RB yet , , , the DT the ecological JJ ecological and CC and economic JJ economic underpinnings NNS underpinning of IN of most JJS most services NNS service are VBP be poorly RB poorly understood VVN understand , , , impeding VVG impede their PP$ their conservation NN conservation and CC and management NN management . SENT . For IN for centuries NNS century , , , farmers NNS farmer have VHP have imported VVN import colonies NNS colony of IN of European JJ European honey NN honey bees NNS bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) to TO to fields NNS field and CC and orchards NNS orchard for IN for pollination NN pollination services NNS service . SENT . These DT these colonies NNS colony are VBP be becoming VVG become increasingly RB increasedly scarce JJ scarce , , , however RB however , , , because IN because of IN of diseases NNS disease , , , pesticides NNS pesticide , , , and CC and other JJ other impacts NNS impact . SENT . Native JJ native bee NN bee communities NNS community also RB also provide VVP provide pollination NN pollination services NNS service , , , but CC but the DT the amount NN amount they PP they provide VVP provide and CC and how WRB how this DT this varies VVZ vary with IN with land NN land management NN management practices NNS practice are VBP be unknown JJ unknown . SENT . Here RB here , , , we PP we document VV document the DT the individual JJ individual species NN species and CC and aggregate JJ aggregate community NN community contributions NNS contribution of IN of native JJ native bees NNS bee to TO to crop VV crop pollination NN pollination , , , on IN on farms NNS farm that WDT that varied VVD vary both DT both in IN in their PP$ their proximity NN proximity to TO to natural JJ natural habitat NN habitat and CC and management NN management type NN type ( ( ( organic JJ organic versus CC versus conventional JJ conventional ) ) ) . SENT . On IN on organic JJ organic farms NNS farm near IN near natural JJ natural habitat NN habitat , , , we PP we found VVD find that DT that native JJ native bee NN bee communities NNS community could MD could provide VV provide full JJ full pollination NN pollination services NNS service even RB even for IN for a DT a crop NN crop with IN with heavy JJ heavy pollination NN pollination requirements NNS requirement ( ( ( e.g. NP , , , watermelon NN watermelon , , , Citrullus NP lanatus NN ) ) ) , , , without IN without the DT the intervention NN intervention of IN of managed VVN manage honey NN honey bees NNS bee . SENT . All DT all other JJ other farms NNS farm , , , however RB however , , , experienced VVD experience greatly RB greatly reduced VVN reduce diversity NN diversity and CC and abundance NN abundance of IN of native JJ native bees NNS bee , , , resulting VVG result in IN in insufficient JJ insufficient pollination NN pollination services NNS service from IN from native JJ native bees NNS bee alone RB alone . SENT . We PP we found VVD find that DT that diversity NN diversity was VBD be essential JJ essential for IN for sustaining VVG sustain the DT the service NN service , , , because RB because of IN of year-to-year JJ year-to-year variation NN variation in IN in community NN community composition NN composition . SENT . Continued JJ continued degradation NN degradation of IN of the DT the agro-natural JJ landscape NN landscape will MD will destroy VV destroy this DT this `` `` `` free JJ free '' '' '' service NN service , , , but CC but conservation NN conservation and CC and restoration NN restoration of IN of bee NN bee habitat NN habitat are VBP be potentially RB potentially viable JJ viable economic JJ economic alternatives NNS alternative for IN for reducing VVG reduce dependence NN dependence on IN on managed VVN manage honey NN honey bees NNS bee . SENT . Background NN background : : : The DT the jack NN jack jumper NN jumper ant NN ant ( ( ( Myrmecia NP pilosula NN ) ) ) is VBZ be responsible JJ responsible for IN for greater JJR great than IN than 90 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of Australian JJ Australian ant NN ant venom NN venom allergy NN allergy . SENT . However RB however , , , deaths NNS death have VHP have only RB only been VBN be recorded VVN record in IN in the DT the island NN island of IN of Tasmania NP Tasmania . SENT . Objectives NNS objective : : : We PP we sought VVD seek to TO to determine VV determine the DT the prevalence NN prevalence , , , clinical JJ clinical features NNS feature , , , natural JJ natural history NN history , , , and CC and predictors NNS predictor of IN of severity NN severeness of IN of M. NP M. pilosula NN sting NN sting allergy NN allergy in IN in Tasmania NP Tasmania . SENT . Methods NNS method : : : We PP we performed VVD perform a DT a random JJ random telephone NN telephone survey NN survey supported VVN support by IN by serum NN serum venom-specific JJ IgE NP analysis NN analysis , , , review NN revue of IN of emergency NN emergency department NN department presentations NNS presentation , , , and CC and follow-up NN follow-up of IN of allergic JJ allergic volunteers NNS volunteer . SENT . Results NNS result : : : M. NP M. pilosula NP , , , honeybee NN honeybee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NP ) ) ) , , , and CC and yellow JJ yellow jacket NN jacket wasp NN wasp ( ( ( Vespula NP germanica NN ) ) ) sting NN sting allergy NN allergy prevalences NNS prevalence were VBD be 2.7 CD @card@ % NN % , , , 1.4 CD @card@ % NN % , , , and CC and 0.6 CD @card@ % NN % compared VVN compare with IN with annual JJ annual sting NN sting exposure NN exposure rates NNS rate of IN of 12 CD @card@ % NN % , , , 7 CD 7 % NN % , , , and CC and 2 CD 2 % NN % , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . Similarly RB similarly , , , emergency NN emergency department NN department presentations NNS presentation with IN with anaphylaxis NN anaphylaxis to TO to M. NP M. pilosula NN were VBD be double RB double those DT those for IN for honeybee NN honeybee . SENT . M. NP M. pilosula NN allergy NN allergy prevalence NN prevalence increased VVN increase with IN with age NN age of IN of 35 CD @card@ years NNS year or CC or greater JJR great ( ( ( odds NNS odd ratio NN ratio ( ( ( OR CC or ) ) ) , , , 2.4 CD @card@ ) ) ) and CC and bee NN bee sting NN sting allergy NN allergy ( ( ( OR CC or , , , 16.9 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . Patients NNS Patient 35 CD @card@ years NNS year of IN of age NN age or CC or older JJR old had VHD have a DT a greater JJR great risk NN risk of IN of hypotensive JJ hypotensive reactions NNS reaction ( ( ( OR CC or , , , 2.9 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . Mueller NP Mueller reaction NN reaction grades NNS grade correlated VVD correlate well RB well with IN with adrenaline NN adrenaline use NN use . SENT . During IN during follow-up NN follow-up , , , 79 CD @card@ ( ( ( 70 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) of IN of 113 CD @card@ jack NN jack jumper NN jumper stings NNS sting caused VVD cause anaphylaxis NN anaphylaxis . SENT . Prior RB Prior worst JJS bad reaction NN reaction severity NN severeness predicted VVD predict the DT the likelihood NN likelihood and CC and severity NN severeness of IN of follow-up NN follow-up reactions NNS reaction ; : ; only RB only 3 CD 3 subjects NNS subject had VHD have more JJR more severe JJ severe reactions NNS reaction . SENT . Venom-specific JJ IgE NP levels NNS level and CC and other JJ other clinical JJ clinical features NNS feature , , , including VVG include comorbidities NNS , , , were VBD be not RB not predictive JJ predictive of IN of severity NN severeness . SENT . Conclusions NNS conclusion : : : Sting NN sting allergy NN allergy prevalence NN prevalence is VBZ be determined VVN determine by IN by age NN age and CC and exposure NN exposure rate NN rate . SENT . M. NP M. pilosula NN sting NN sting exposure NN exposure in IN in Tasmania NP Tasmania is VBZ be excessive JJ excessive compared VVN compare with IN with that WDT that found VVD find in IN in mainland JJ mainland Australia NP Australia , , , and CC and there EX there is VBZ be a DT a high JJ high systemic JJ systemic reaction NN reaction risk NN risk in IN in allergic JJ allergic people NNS people on IN on re-sting NN . SENT . Prior RB Prior worst JJS bad reaction NN reaction severity NN severeness ( ( ( Mueller NP Mueller grade NN grade ) ) ) and CC and age NN age predict VVP predict reaction NN reaction severity NN severeness and CC and might MD might be VB be used VVN use to TO to guide VV guide management NN management . SENT . Propolis NN propolis , , , a DT a resinous JJ resinous hive NN hive product NN product secreted VVN secrete by IN by Apis NP mellifera NN bees NNS bee , , , has VHZ have been VBN be shown VVN show to TO to reduce VV reduce the DT the incidence NN incidence of IN of dental JJ dental caries NN caries in IN in rats NNS rat . SENT . Several JJ several compounds NNS compound , , , mainly RB mainly polyphenolics NNS , , , have VHP have been VBN be identified VVN identify in IN in propolis NN propolis . SENT . Apigenin NN and CC and tt NN -farnesol NN demonstrated VVD demonstrate biological JJ biological activity NN activity against IN against mutans JJ streptococci NNS streptococcus . SENT . We PP we determined VVD determine here RB here their PP$ their effects NNS effect , , , alone RB alone or CC or in IN in combination NN combination , , , on IN on glucosyltransferase NN activity NN activity , , , biofilm NN viability NN viability , , , and CC and development NN development of IN of caries NN caries in IN in rats NNS rat . SENT . Sprague-Dawley NP rats NNS rat were VBD be infected VVN infect with IN with Streptococcus NN streptococcus sobrinus NN 6715 CD @card@ and CC and treated VVN treat topically RB topically twice RB twice daily RB daily as RB as follows VVZ follow : : : ( ( ( 1 LS 1 ) ) ) tt-farnesol NN , , , ( ( ( 2 LS 2 ) ) ) apigenin VV , , , ( ( ( 3 LS 3 ) ) ) vehicle NN vehicle control NN control , , , ( ( ( 4 LS 4 ) ) ) fluoride NN fluoride , , , ( ( ( 5 LS 5 ) ) ) apigenin+tt-farnesol NN , , , and CC and ( ( ( 6 CD 6 ) ) ) chlorhexidine NN . SENT . Apigenin NP ( ( ( 1.33 CD @card@ mM NN ) ) ) inhibited VVD inhibit the DT the activity NN activity of IN of glucosyltransferases NNS in IN in solution NN solution ( ( ( 90-95 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) and CC and on IN on the DT the surface NN surface of IN of saliva NN saliva -coated VVD hydroxyapatite JJ beads NNS bead ( ( ( 35-58 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) ; : ; it PP it was VBD be devoid JJ devoid of IN of antibacterial NN antibacterial activity. NN tt-Farnesol NN ( ( ( 1.33 CD @card@ mM NN ) ) ) showed VVD show modest JJ modest antibacterial NN antibacterial activity NN activity against IN against biofilms NNS and CC and its PP$ its effects NNS effect on IN on glucosyltransferases NNS were VBD be minimal JJ minimal . SENT . The DT the incidence NN incidence of IN of smooth-surface NN caries NN caries was VBD be significantly RB significantly reduced VVN reduce by IN by apigenin+tt-farnesol NN ( ( ( 60 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) , , , fluoride NN fluoride ( ( ( 70 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) , , , and CC and chlorhexidine NN ( ( ( 72 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) treatments NNS treatment compared VVN compare to TO to control VV control ( ( ( P NN P < SYM < 0.05 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the method NN method of IN of application NN application of IN of the DT the antibiotic JJ antibiotic tylosin NN ( ( ( Tylan NP Tylan ) ) ) for IN for control NN control of IN of oxytetracycline-resistant JJ American JJ American foulbrood NN ( ( ( Paenibacillus NP larvae NNS larva White NP White ) ) ) was VBD be tested VVN test in IN in honeybee NN honeybee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. ) ) ) colonies NNS colony . SENT . A DT a powdered JJ powdered sugar NN sugar mixture NN mixture with IN with tylosin NN , , , applied VVN apply as IN as a DT a dust NN dust , , , was VBD be efficacious JJ efficacious in IN in eliminating VVG eliminate American JJ American foulbrood NN symptoms NNS symptom at IN at a DT a rate NN rate of IN of 200-mg NN Tylan NP Tylan per IN per 20 CD @card@ g NN g of IN of powdered JJ powdered sugar NN sugar , , , applied VVN apply at IN at weekly JJ weekly intervals NNS interval for IN for 3 CD 3 weeks NNS week . SENT . A DT a second JJ second method NN method of IN of treatment NN treatment consisting VVG consist of IN of Tylan NP Tylan mixed VVN mix with IN with granulated VVN granulate sugar NN sugar and CC and vegetable NN vegetable shortening NN shortening and CC and applied VVD apply once RB once as IN as a DT a patty NN patty , , , at IN at an DT an equivalent JJ equivalent total JJ total dose NN dose as IN as the DT the dust NN dust method NN method , , , to TO to diseased JJ diseased colonies NNS colony also RB also effectively RB effectively eliminated VVN eliminate symptoms NNS symptom of IN of disease NN disease . SENT . In IN in all DT all colonies NNS colony treated VVN treat with IN with patties NNS patty , , , however RB however , , , small JJ small hive NN hive beetle NN beetle ( ( ( Aethina NP tumida NP Murray NP Murray ) ) ) populations NNS population significantly RB significantly increased VVN increase , , , compared VVN compare with IN with the DT the powder NN powder sugar NN sugar method NN method or CC or untreated JJ untreated controls NNS control . SENT . Bee NP Bee populations NNS population in IN in patty NN patty -treated JJ colonies NNS colony also RB also were VBD be significantly RB significantly reduced VVN reduce , , , most RBS most likely JJ likely the DT the result NN result of IN of the DT the invasion NN invasion and CC and proliferation NN proliferation of IN of adult NN adult and CC and larval JJ larval small JJ small hive NN hive beetles NNS beetle . SENT . Such JJ such reduction NN reduction in IN in colony NN colony strength NN strength was VBD be not RB not seen VVN see in IN in dust-treated VVN colonies NNS colony . SENT . Because IN because of IN of the DT the obvious JJ obvious damaging JJ damaging populations NNS population of IN of small JJ small hive NN hive beetles NNS beetle , , , concerns NNS concern about IN about development NN development of IN of disease NN disease resistance NN resistance , , , unknown JJ unknown risks NNS risk of IN of residues NNS residue , , , and CC and lack NN lack of IN of support NN support by IN by regulatory JJ regulative agencies NNS agency for IN for the DT the use NN use of IN of the DT the patty NN patty method NN method , , , the DT the use NN use of IN of the DT the dust NN dust method NN method of IN of tylosin NN is VBZ be greatly RB greatly favored VVN favour over IN over the DT the patty NN patty method NN method . SENT . We PP we have VHP have found VVN find protein NN protein composition NN composition differences NNS difference between IN between male NN male , , , queen NN queen and CC and worker NN worker antennae NNS antenna , , , as RB as analyzed VVD analyse by IN by polyacrylamide NN gel NN gel electrophoresis NN . SENT . Female JJ female antennal JJ clubs NNS club contain VVP contain three CD three low JJ low molecular JJ molecular weight NN weight proteins NNS protein , , , Siap1 JJ ( ( ( 18 CD @card@ kDa NN ) ) ) , , , Siap2 JJ ( ( ( 16 CD @card@ kDa NN ) ) ) and CC and Siap3 NP ( ( ( 14 CD @card@ kDa NN ) ) ) with IN with acidic JJ acidic isoelectric JJ isoelectric points NNS point . SENT . Tryptic JJ tryptic peptide NN peptide maps NNS map obtained VVN obtain by IN by MALDI-TOF NP mass NN mass spectrometry NN spectrometry show NN show that IN that Siap1 JJ in IN in worker NN worker segment NN segment 9 CD 9 is VBZ be essentially RB essentially the DT the same JJ same protein NN protein as IN as Siap1 JJ in IN in segment NN segment 10 CD @card@ , , , and CC and Siap2 JJ from IN from worker NN worker segments NNS segment 9 CD 9 and CC and 10 CD @card@ are VBP be nearly RB nearly identical JJ identical . SENT . A DT a mass JJ mass fragment NN fragment of IN of m/z NN 477.1 CD @card@ ( ( ( the DT the 2+ JJ ion NN ion for IN for a DT a 952.2-Da NP peptide NN peptide ) ) ) from IN from Siap2 NN in IN in worker NN worker segment NN segment A9 NP was VBD be analyzed VVN analyse by IN by electrospray NN ionization NN ionization mass NN mass spectrometry NN spectrometry and CC and found VVD find to TO to have VH have the DT the sequence NN sequence ( ( ( K/R NP ) ) ) -I/L-I/L-I/L-P-V-S-I/L-A DT -K NN . SENT . This DT this appears VVZ appear similar JJ similar to TO to the DT the sequence NN sequence of IN of residues NNS residue 97-107 CD @card@ of IN of a DT a putative JJ putative odorant-binding NN odorant-bind protein NN protein from IN from A. NP A. mellifera NN . SENT . The DT the male JJ male antenna NN antenna has VHZ have one CD one major JJ major acidic JJ acidic low JJ low molecular JJ molecular weight NN weight protein NN protein , , , Sim1 JJ . SENT . It PP it is VBZ be likely JJ likely that IN that Siap1-3 CD and CC and Sim1 JJ are VBP be odorant- NN and CC and pheromone-binding JJ proteins NNS protein . SENT . The DT the segments NNS segment containing VVG contain antennal JJ glands NNS gland in IN in workers NNS worker and CC and queens NNS queen show VVP show a DT a prominent JJ prominent protein NN protein band NN band near IN near 23 CD @card@ kDa NN , , , Siap0 NP , , , which WDT which is VBZ be not RB not seen VVN see in IN in any DT any other JJ other segment NN segment and CC and may MD may be VB be a DT a gland NN gland -related JJ protein NN protein . SENT . The DT the parasitic JJ parasitic mite NN mite Varroa NP destructor NN destructor Anderson NP Anderson and CC and Trueman NP Trueman , , , the DT the most RBS most serious JJ serious threat NN threat to TO to apiculture NN apiculture in IN in many JJ many countries NNS country of IN of the DT the world NN world , , , reproduces VVZ reproduce inside IN inside honeybee NN honeybee brood NN brood cells NNS cell . SENT . Previous JJ previous research NN research , , , using VVG use artificial JJ artificial cells NNS cell for IN for rearing VVG rear the DT the mite NN mite on IN on an DT an Apis NP mellifera NN larva NN larva , , , indicated VVN indicate that IN that semiochemicals NNS affecting VVG affect the DT the reproduction NN reproduction of IN of Varroa NP destructor NN destructor are VBP be released VVN release into IN into such JJ such cells NNS cell . SENT . In IN in order NN order to TO to isolate VV isolate these DT these semiochemicals NNS , , , infested VVD infest artificial JJ artificial cells NNS cell were VBD be extracted VVN extract with IN with hexane NN hexane and CC and the DT the extract NN extract fractionated VVD fractionate twice RB twice . SENT . Several JJ several unsaturated JJ unsaturated hydrocarbons NNS hydrocarbon were VBD be identified VVN identify in IN in the DT the active JJ active fraction NN fraction ; : ; some DT some of IN of them PP them were VBD be released VVN release in IN in higher JJR high amounts NNS amount in IN in case NN case of IN of infestation NN infestation and CC and were VBD be , , , therefore RB therefore , , , bioassayed VVN bioassay for IN for their PP$ their effect NN effect on IN on the DT the mite NN mite 's POS 's reproduction NN reproduction . SENT . Of IN of five CD five alkenes NNS alkene tested VVN test under IN under laboratory NN laboratory conditions NNS condition , , , ( ( ( Z NP Z ) ) ) -8-heptadecene NN , , , caused VVD cause a DT a 30 CD @card@ % NN % reduction NN reduction in IN in the DT the mean JJ mean number NN number of IN of offspring NN offspring of IN of mites NNS mite reared VVN rear in IN in cells NNS cell treated VVN treat with IN with this DT this compound NN compound . SENT . Elsewhere RB elsewhere , , , we PP we characterized VVD characterize the DT the structure NN structure of IN of twelve NN twelve N-glycans NP purified VVD purify from IN from royal JJ royal jelly NN jelly glycoproteins NNS ( ( ( Kimura NP Kimura , , , Y. NP et CC et al. NP , , , Biosci NP . SENT . Biotechnol NN . SENT . Biochem. NP , , , 64 CD @card@ , , , 2109-2120 CD @card@ ( ( ( 2000 CD @card@ ) ) ) ) ) ) . SENT . Structural JJ structural analysis NN analysis showed VVD show that IN that the DT the typical JJ typical high-mannose NN type NN type structure NN structure ( ( ( Man9-4GlcNAc2 JJ ) ) ) accounts NNS account for IN for about RB about 72 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of total JJ total N-glycans NP , , , a DT a biantennary-type NN structure NN structure ( ( ( GlcNAc2Man3GlcNAc2 NP ) ) ) about IN about 8 CD 8 % NN % , , , and CC and a DT a hybrid-type NN structure NN structure ( ( ( GlcNAc1Man4GlcNAc2 NP ) ) ) about IN about 3 CD 3 % NN % . SENT . During IN during structural JJ structural analysis NN analysis of IN of minor JJ minor N-glycans NP of IN of royal JJ royal jelly NN jelly glycoproteins NNS , , , we PP we found VVD find that IN that one PP one had VHD have an DT an N-acetyl-galactosaminyl NP residue NN residue at IN at the DT the non JJ non reducing VVG reduce end NN end ; : ; most JJS most of IN of such JJ such residues NNS residue have VHP have been VBN be found VVN find in IN in N-glycans NP of IN of mammalian JJ mammalian glycoproteins NNS . SENT . By IN by exoglycosidase NN digestion NN digestion , , , methylation NN methylation analysis NN analysis , , , ion-spray NN ( ( ( IS VBZ be ) ) ) -MS NN analysis NN analysis , , , and CC and 1H JJ NMR NP NMR spectroscopy NN spectroscopy , , , we PP we identified VVD identify the DT the structure NN structure of IN of the DT the N-glycan NP containing VVG contain GalNAc JJ as RB as ; : ; GlcNAcbeta1 NP -2Manalpha1-6 CD ( ( ( GalNAcbeta1-4GlcNAcbeta1-2Manalpha1-3 LS ) ) ) Manbeta1-4GlcNAcbeta1 JJ -4GlcNAc NN . SENT . This DT this result NN result suggested VVD suggest that IN that a DT a beta1-4 CD GalNAc JJ transferase NN transferase is VBZ be present JJ present in IN in hypopharyngeal JJ and CC and mandibular JJ mandibular glands NNS gland of IN of honeybees NNS honeybee . SENT . Reverse VV reverse transcription-PCR NP assays NNS assay have VHP have been VBN be established VVN establish for IN for a DT a quick JJ quick , , , sensitive JJ sensitive , , , and CC and specific JJ specific diagnosis NN diagnosis of IN of acute JJ acute bee NN bee paralysis NN paralysis virus NN virus ( ( ( ABPV NP ) ) ) , , , a DT a common JJ common virus NN virus of IN of the DT the honeybee NN honeybee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NP ) ) ) , , , directly RB directly from IN from clinical JJ clinical samples NNS sample . SENT . A DT a 3 CD 3 , , , 071-nucleotide NN fragment NN fragment of IN of the DT the ABPV NP genome NN genome , , , which WDT which includes VVZ include the DT the entire JJ entire capsid NN capsid polyprotein NN gene NN gene , , , was VBD be amplified VVN amplify from IN from Austrian NP Austrian , , , German NP German , , , Polish NP Polish , , , and CC and Hungarian NP Hungarian ABPV NP samples NNS sample and CC and sequenced JJ , , , and CC and the DT the sequences NNS sequence were VBD be compared VVN compare . SENT . The DT the alignment NN alignment of IN of a DT a smaller JJR small fragment NN fragment with IN with ABPV NP sequences NNS sequence from IN from the DT the United NP United States NPS States and CC and the DT the United NP United Kingdom NP Kingdom revealed VVD reveal nucleotide NN nucleotide identity NN identity rates NNS rate between IN between 89 CD @card@ and CC and 96 CD @card@ % NN % , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . Phylogenetic JJ phyletic trees NNS tree which WDT which display VVP display the DT the molecular JJ molecular relationship NN relationship between IN between the DT the viruses NNS virus of IN of different JJ different geographic JJ geographical origin NN origin were VBD be constructed VVN construct . SENT . The DT the extent NN extent of IN of worker NN worker drifting VVG drift between IN between nests NNS nest in IN in aggregations NNS aggregation of IN of colonies NNS colony of IN of the DT the giant JJ giant Asian JJ Asian honeybee NN honeybee Apis NP dorsata NN was VBD be studied VVN study using VVG use DNA NN DNA microsatellites NNS . SENT . Four CD Four aggregations NNS aggregation with IN with three CD three , , , six CD six , , , seven CD seven and CC and eight CD eight colonies NNS colony were VBD be sampled. JJ 1537 CD @card@ workers NNS worker were VBD be genotyped VVN using VVG use four CD four loci NNS locus . SENT . Maternity NN maternity testing NN testing was VBD be used VVN use to TO to separate JJ separate drifted VVD drift and CC and natal JJ natal workers NNS worker , , , and CC and to TO to assign VV assign drifted VVD drift individuals NNS individual to TO to their PP$ their actual JJ actual maternal JJ maternal colony NN colony . SENT . The DT the proportion NN proportion of IN of drifted VVD drift workers NNS worker ranged VVN range from IN from 0 CD 0 to TO to 6.25 CD @card@ % NN % with IN with an DT an average NN average of IN of 1.27 CD @card@ % NN % ( ( ( sd VVN = SYM = 0.245 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . No DT no significant JJ significant differences NNS difference in IN in rates NNS rate of IN of drifting VVG drift were VBD be found VVN find between IN between the DT the four CD four aggregations NNS aggregation . SENT . There EX There was VBD be also RB also no DT no correlation NN correlation between IN between the DT the direction NN direction of IN of the DT the drift NN drift and CC and the DT the position NN position of IN of the DT the nests NNS nest relative JJ relative to TO to each DT each other JJ other . SENT . These DT these results NNS result show VVP show that IN that in IN in A. NP A. dorsata NP , , , a DT a bee NN bee species NN species that WDT that frequently RB frequently nests NNS nest in IN in dense JJ dense aggregations NNS aggregation , , , the DT the extent NN extent of IN of forager NN forager drifting VVG drift between IN between colonies NNS colony can MD can be VB be very RB very low JJ low . SENT . Genetic JJ genetic correlations NNS correlation for IN for behavioral JJ behavioral characteristics NNS characteristic and CC and forewing NN forewing length NN length of IN of worker NN worker honey NN honey bees NNS bee , , , Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. , , , were VBD be estimated VVN estimate . SENT . All DT all characteristics NNS characteristic associated VVN associate with IN with defensive JJ defensive behavior NN behaviour were VBD be correlated VVN correlate with IN with each DT each other JJ other . SENT . The DT the tendency NN tendency of IN of bees NNS bee to TO to fly VV fly off RP off the DT the combs VVZ comb was VBD be correlated VVN correlate with IN with their PP$ their tendency NN tendency to TO to run VV run on IN on the DT the combs VVZ comb , , , and CC and with IN with stinging JJ sting behavior NN behaviour . SENT . Tendency NN tendency to TO to run VV run was VBD be positively RB positively correlated VVN correlate with IN with tendency NN tendency to TO to hang VV hang from IN from combs VVZ comb , , , and CC and with IN with hygienic JJ hygienic behavior NN behaviour , , , but CC but was VBD be negatively RB negatively correlated VVN correlate with IN with forewing NN forewing length NN length . SENT . Forewing NN forewing length NN length was VBD be negatively RB negatively correlated VVN correlate with IN with hygienic JJ hygienic behavior NN behaviour , , , but CC but it PP it was VBD be not RB not significantly RB significantly correlated VVN correlate with IN with stinging JJ sting behavior NN behaviour . SENT . The DT the correlations NNS correlation obtained VVN obtain suggest VVP suggest that IN that smaller JJR small bees NNS bee have VHP have higher JJR high activity NN activity levels NNS level than IN than larger JJR large bees NNS bee . SENT . The DT the implications NNS implication of IN of these DT these results NNS result on IN on the DT the adaptive JJ adaptive success NN success of IN of Africanized VVN Africanize honey NN honey bee NN bee populations NNS population to TO to tropical JJ tropical environments NNS environment and CC and on IN on selective JJ selective breeding NN breeding are VBP be discussed VVN discuss . SENT . Propolis NN propolis , , , a DT a natural JJ natural product NN product produced VVN produce by IN by the DT the honeybee NN honeybee , , , has VHZ have been VBN be used VVN use for IN for thousands NNS thousand of IN of years NNS year in IN in folk NN folk medicine NN medicine for IN for several JJ several purposes NNS purpose . SENT . The DT the extract NN extract contains VVZ contain amino NN amino acids NNS acid , , , phenolic JJ phenolic acids NNS acid , , , phenolic JJ phenolic acid NN acid esters NNS ester , , , flavonoids NNS , , , cinnamic JJ cinnamic acid NN acid , , , terpenes NNS terpene and CC and caffeic JJ acid NN acid . SENT . It PP it possesses VVZ possess several JJ several biological JJ biological activities NNS activity such JJ such as IN as antiinflammatory NN , , , immunostimulatory NN , , , antiviral JJ antiviral and CC and antibacterial NN antibacterial . SENT . The DT the exact JJ exact mode NN mode of IN of physiological JJ physiological or CC or biochemical JJ biochemical mechanisms NNS mechanism responsible JJ responsible for IN for the DT the medical JJ medical effects NNS effect , , , however RB however , , , is VBZ be yet RB yet to TO to be VB be determined VVN determine . SENT . In IN in this DT this work NN work , , , we PP we have VHP have investigated VVN investigate the DT the antioxidant NN antioxidant activity NN activity of IN of a DT a propolis NN propolis extract NN extract deprived VVN deprive of IN of caffeic JJ acid JJ acid phenethyl NN ester NN ester ( ( ( CAPE NN cape ) ) ) . SENT . In IN in addition NN addition , , , the DT the activity NN activity of IN of CAPE NN cape and CC and galangin NN was VBD be also RB also examined VVN examine . SENT . Propolis NN propolis extract NN extract ( ( ( with IN with and CC and without IN without CAPE NN cape ) ) ) and CC and its PP$ its active JJ active components NNS component showed VVD show a DT a dose-dependent JJ free JJ free radical JJ radical scavenging VVG scavenge effect NN effect , , , a DT a significant JJ significant inhibition NN inhibition of IN of xanthine NN xanthine oxidase NN oxidase activity NN activity , , , and CC and an DT an antilipoperoxidative JJ capacity NN capacity . SENT . Propolis NN propolis extract NN extract with IN with CAPE NN cape was VBD be more RBR more active JJ active than IN than propolis NN propolis extract NN extract without IN without CAPE NN cape . SENT . CAPE NN cape , , , used VVN use alone RB alone , , , exhibited VVN exhibit a DT a strong JJ strong antioxidant NN antioxidant activity NN activity , , , higher JJR high than IN than galangin NN . SENT . The DT the experimental JJ experimental evidence NN evidence , , , therefore RB therefore , , , suggests VVZ suggest that DT that CAPE NN cape plays VVZ play an DT an important JJ important role NN role in IN in the DT the antioxidant NN antioxidant activity NN activity of IN of propolis NN propolis . SENT . Imidacloprid NP is VBZ be increasingly RB increasedly used VVN use worldwide RB worldwide as IN as an DT an insecticide NN insecticide . SENT . It PP it is VBZ be an DT an agonist NN agonist at IN at nicotinic JJ nicotinic acetylcholine NN acetylcholine receptors NNS receptor ( ( ( nAChRs NNS ) ) ) and CC and shows VVZ show selective JJ selective toxicity NN toxicity for IN for insects NNS insect over IN over vertebrates NNS vertebrate . SENT . Recent JJ Recent studies NNS study using VVG use binding JJ binding assays NNS assay , , , molecular JJ molecular biology NN biology and CC and electrophysiology NN electrophysiology suggest VVP suggest that IN that both DT both alpha- NN and CC and non-alpha-subunits NN of IN of nAChRs NNS contribute VVP contribute to TO to interactions NNS interaction of IN of these DT these receptors NNS receptor with IN with imidacloprid NN . SENT . Electrostatic JJ electrostatic interactions NNS interaction of IN of the DT the nitroimine JJ group NN group and CC and bridgehead NN bridgehead nitrogen NN nitrogen in IN in imidacloprid NN with IN with particular JJ particular nAChR JJ amino NN amino acid NN acid residues NNS residue are VBP be likely JJ likely to TO to have VH have key JJ key roles NNS role in IN in determining VVG determine the DT the selective JJ selective toxicity NN toxicity of IN of imidacloprid NN . SENT . Chemical NP Chemical calculation NN calculation of IN of atomic JJ atomic charges NNS charge of IN of the DT the insecticide NN insecticide molecule NN molecule and CC and a DT a site-directed VVN mutagenesis NN study NN study support VVP support this DT this hypothesis NN hypothesis . SENT . Two CD Two organophosphate JJ compounds NNS compound , , , coumaphos NNS and CC and diazinon NN , , , were VBD be examined VVN examine for IN for effects NNS effect of IN of sublethal JJ exposure NN exposure on IN on odor NN odour learning NN learning and CC and generalization NN generalization in IN in honey NN honey bees NNS bee , , , Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. Using VVG use proboscis NN proboscis extension NN extension response NN response training NN training as IN as a DT a measure NN measure of IN of odor NN odour learning NN learning and CC and discrimination NN discrimination , , , a DT a series NN series of IN of two CD two experiments NNS experiment tested VVN test whether IN whether these DT these compounds NNS compound would MD would inhibit VV inhibit bees NNS bee from IN from learning VVG learn a DT a new JJ new odor NN odour or CC or discriminating VVG discriminate between IN between different JJ different odors NNS odour . SENT . Bees NNS bee were VBD be exposed VVN expose to TO to coumaphos NNS or CC or diazinon NN in IN in acetone NN acetone applied VVN apply to TO to the DT the thorax NN thorax , , , or CC or to TO to coumaphos NNS or CC or diazinon NN in IN in hexane NN hexane injected VVD inject intracranially JJ . SENT . At IN at no DT no dose NN dose tested VVN test or CC or exposure NN exposure method NN method used VVN use was VBD be coumaphos RB shown VVN show to TO to inhibit VV inhibit acquisition NN acquisition of IN of a DT a novel JJ novel odor NN odour stimulus NN stimulus , , , although IN although it PP it was VBD be shown VVN show to TO to slightly RB slightly reduce VV reduce discriminatory JJ discriminatory ability NN ability when WRB when given VVN give by IN by intracranial JJ intracranial injection NN injection . SENT . Diazinon NP had VHD have effects NNS effect on IN on odor NN odour learning VVG learn at IN at several JJ several small JJ small doses NNS dose , , , and CC and a DT a small JJ small injected VVN inject dose NN dose was VBD be shown VVN show to TO to significantly RB significantly inhibit VV inhibit learning VVG learn of IN of an DT an odor NN odour stimulus NN stimulus paired VVN pair with IN with a DT a sucrose NN sucrose reward NN reward . SENT . When WRB when bee NN bee head NN head acetylcholineasterase NN activity NN activity was VBD be measured VVN measured after IN after dermal JJ dermal applications NNS application of IN of both DT both pesticides NNS pesticide , , , only RB only the DT the higher JJR high doses NNS dose of IN of diazinon NN showed VVD show reduced JJ reduced activity NN activity , , , indicating VVG indicate that IN that externally-applied VVN coumaphos NNS shows VVZ show no DT no significant JJ significant effect NN effect on IN on bee NN bee brain NN brain acetylcholinesterase NN acetylcholinesterase activity NN activity . SENT . These DT these data NNS datum suggest VVP suggest that DT that acute JJ acute application NN application of IN of coumaphos NNS has VHZ have only RB only slight JJ slight nonlethal NN nonlethal effects NNS effect upon IN upon the DT the behavior NN behaviour of IN of honey NN honey bees NNS bee and CC and should MD should have VH have little JJ little effect NN effect upon IN upon bee NN bee tasks NNS task that WDT that involve VVP involve odor NN odour learning NN learning . SENT . Crosses VVZ cross were VBD be made VVN make between IN between queens NNS queen and CC and drones NNS drone from IN from 16 CD @card@ different JJ different commercial JJ commercial sources NNS source of IN of European JJ European honeybees NNS honeybee to TO to determine VV determine if IN if reproductive JJ reproductive rates NNS rate for IN for Varroa NP destructor NN destructor differed VVD differ . SENT . Worker NN worker brood NN brood from IN from four CD four different JJ different crosses NNS crosse averaged VVD average 4.2 CD @card@ mites NNS mite per IN per cell NN cell and CC and were VBD be chosen VVN choose as IN as the DT the high JJ high mite NN mite reproduction NN reproduction group NN group . SENT . Four CD Four others NNS other averaged VVD average 2.4 CD @card@ mites NNS mite per IN per cell NN cell and CC and were VBD be chosen VVN choose for IN for the DT the low JJ low mite NN mite reproduction NN reproduction group NN group . SENT . A DT a second JJ second set NN set of IN of crosses VVZ cross within IN within the DT the high JJ high and CC and low JJ low mite NN mite reproduction NN reproduction groups NNS group were VBD be made VVN make and CC and the DT the worker NN worker offspring NN offspring tested VVN test for IN for differences NNS difference in IN in mite NN mite fecundity NN fecundity . SENT . Worker NN worker brood NN brood of IN of the DT the high JJ high and CC and low JJ low mite NN mite reproduction NN reproduction lines NNS line did VVD do not RB not differ VV differ significantly RB significantly in IN in the DT the average JJ average number NN number of IN of mites NNS mite per IN per cell NN cell . SENT . The DT the proportion NN proportion of IN of infested VVN infest cells NNS cell with IN with non-reproductive JJ mites NNS mite also RB also was VBD be not RB not affected VVN affect by IN by selection NN selection . SENT . These DT these results NNS result suggest VVP suggest that IN that the DT the frequency NN frequency of IN of larval JJ larval or CC or pupal JJ pupal characteristics NNS characteristic that IN that we PP we measured VVD measured in IN in worker NN worker honeybees NNS honeybee that WDT that might MD might influence VV influence mite NN mite reproductive JJ reproductive rates NNS rate can MD can not RB not be VB be increased VVN increase by IN by selection NN selection based VVN base on IN on average JJ average mite NN mite fecundity NN fecundity . SENT . To TO To explore VV explore the DT the role NN role of IN of tyramine NN tyramine in IN in the DT the transformation NN transformation of IN of reproductive JJ reproductive states NNS state of IN of honeybee NN honeybee workers NNS worker , , , brain NN brain levels NNS level of IN of tyramine NN tyramine and CC and N-acetyltyramine NN were VBD be measured VVN measured in IN in both DT both normal JJ normal and CC and queenless JJ workers NNS worker . SENT . Queenless JJ workers NNS worker had VHD have higher JJR high tyramine NN tyramine levels NNS level and CC and lower JJR low N-acetyltyramine NP levels NNS level than IN than normal JJ normal workers NNS worker did VVD do . SENT . Intermediate JJ intermediate reproductive JJ reproductive workers NNS worker that WDT that were VBD be transferred VVN transfer into IN into a DT a normal JJ normal colony NN colony from IN from a DT a queenless JJ colony NN colony had VHD have intermediate JJ intermediate levels NNS level of IN of tyramine NN tyramine and CC and N-acetyltyramine NP . SENT . Elevation NN elevation of IN of tyramine NN tyramine in IN in the DT the queenless JJ workers NNS worker occurred VVD occur at IN at an DT an earlier RBR earlier adult JJ adult stage NN stage than IN than elevation NN elevation of IN of dopamine NN dopamine . SENT . Tyramine NN tyramine levels NNS level in IN in intermediate JJ intermediate reproductive JJ reproductive workers NNS worker returned VVD return to TO to the DT the levels NNS level seen VVN see in IN in normal JJ normal workers NNS worker , , , but CC but dopamine NN dopamine levels NNS level in IN in intermediate JJ intermediate reproductive JJ reproductive workers NNS worker remained VVD remain elevated JJ elevated at IN at the DT the same JJ same level NN level as IN as in IN in queenless JJ workers NNS worker . SENT . Thus RB thus , , , brain NN brain tyramine NN tyramine may MD may be VB be regulated VVN regulate by IN by the DT the colony NN colony condition NN condition with IN with or CC or without IN without a DT a queen NN queen . SENT . Injection NN injection of IN of an DT an amine NN amine uptake NN uptake inhibitor NN inhibiter , , , reserpine NN reserpine , , , depleted VVN deplete tyramine NN tyramine and CC and elevated JJ elevated N-acetyltyramine NP . SENT . Distributions NNS distribution of IN of tyramine NN tyramine and CC and dopamine NN dopamine within IN within the DT the brain NN brain were VBD be distinctively RB distinctively different JJ different , , , whereas IN whereas distributions NNS distribution of IN of N-acetyltyramine NP and CC and N-acetyldopamine NP were VBD be similar JJ similar , , , suggesting VVG suggest that IN that each DT each functional JJ functional amine NN amine is VBZ be stored VVN store in IN in specific JJ specific neurosecretory NN cells NNS cell and CC and released VVN release to TO to the DT the relevant JJ relevant receptor NN receptor sites NNS site but CC but that DT that metabolism NN metabolism into IN into each DT each N-acetylmetabolite NP is VBZ be determined VVN determine by IN by diffusion NN diffusion . SENT . A DT a simple JJ simple multiresidue NN method NN method for IN for the DT the determination NN determination of IN of insecticides NNS insecticide in IN in honeybees NNS honeybee is VBZ be described VVN describe . SENT . The DT the developed VVN develop method NN method is VBZ be based VVN base on IN on the DT the matrix NN matrix solid JJ solid -phase NN dispersion NN dispersion technique NN technique . SENT . A DT a total JJ total number NN number of IN of 12 CD @card@ insecticides NNS insecticide ( ( ( azinfos NN -methyl NN , , , buprofezin NN , , , chlorpyriphos NNS , , , chlorpyriphos-methyl NN , , , diazinon NN , , , ethion NN , , , fenitrothion NN , , , fipronil NN , , , methidathion NN , , , phosalone NN , , , pirimicarb NN , , , propoxur NN ) ) ) used VVN use on IN on flowering JJ flowering fields NNS field are VBP be determined VVN determine by IN by this DT this method NN method . SENT . The DT the method NN method uses VVZ use Florisil NN and CC and silica NN silica as IN as dispersing VVG disperse agents NNS agent , , , alumina NN alumina and CC and silica NN silica as IN as cleanup NN cleanup adsorbents NNS adsorbent and CC and a DT a low JJ low polarity NN polarity solvent JJ solvent system NN system to TO to elute VV elute pesticide NN pesticide residues NNS residue from IN from the DT the honeybee NN honeybee samples NNS sample . SENT . The DT the insecticides NNS insecticide were VBD be quantified VVN quantify using VVG use capillary JJ capillary gas NN gas chromatography NN chromatography with IN with a DT a nitrogen-phosphorus NN detector NN detector . SENT . The DT the method NN method has VHZ have shown VVN show good JJ good recovery NN recovery ( ( ( 70-110 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) for IN for various JJ various levels NNS level of IN of spiked JJ spiked samples NNS sample ( ( ( 0.01-1.0 CD @card@ mg/kg NN ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the relative JJ relative standard JJ standard deviations NNS deviation were VBD be in IN in the DT the range NN range of IN of 2-8 CD @card@ % NN % for IN for all DT all pesticides NNS pesticide studied VVD study . SENT . The DT the limits NNS limit of IN of detection NN detection were VBD be in IN in the DT the range NN range of IN of 0.005-0.05 CD @card@ mg/kg NN . SENT . The DT the procedure NN procedure can MD can be VB be applied VVN apply for IN for the DT the determination NN determination of IN of residues NNS residue of IN of low-polarity NN and CC and medium JJ medium polarity NN polarity pesticides NNS pesticide in IN in honeybee NN honeybee samples NNS sample . SENT . The DT the pollination NN pollination effectiveness NN effectiveness ( ( ( floral JJ floral visitation NN visitation rate NN rate , , , percentage NN percentage of IN of flowers NNS flower pollinated VVN pollinate , , , and CC and pollen NN pollen deposition NN deposition ) ) ) of IN of indigenous JJ indigenous and CC and introduced VVN introduce bees NNS bee visiting VVG visit lowbush JJ blueberry NN blueberry ( ( ( Vaccinium NP angustifolium NP Aiton NP Aiton ) ) ) was VBD be studied VVN study in IN in Nova NP Nova Scotia NP Scotia from IN from 1992 CD @card@ to TO to 1994 CD @card@ . SENT . Floral JJ floral visitation NN visitation rate NN rate alone RB alone was VBD be not RB not a DT a good JJ good indicator NN indicator of IN of pollination NN pollination effectiveness NN effectiveness , , , as IN as not RB not all DT all floral JJ floral visits NNS visit resulted VVN result in IN in successful JJ successful pollination NN pollination events NNS event . SENT . As IN as a DT a group NN group , , , pollen NN pollen -harvesting VVG taxa NNS taxon pollinated VVN pollinate > SYM > 85 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of flowers NNS flower visited VVD visit as IN as compared VVN compare with IN with under IN under 25 CD @card@ % NN % for IN for nectar NN nectar foragers NNS forager . SENT . Equivalencies NNS equivalency derived VVN derive from IN from floral JJ floral visitation NN visitation rates NNS rate and CC and pollination NN pollination percentages NNS percentage show VVP show that IN that the DT the most RBS most effective JJ effective pollen NN pollen -harvesters NNS , , , Bombus NP spp. JJ queens NNS queen and CC and Andrena NP spp. NP , , , would MD would pollinate VV pollinate 6.5 CD @card@ and CC and 3.6 CD @card@ flowers NNS flower , , , respectively RB respectively , , , in IN in the DT the time NN time it PP it would MD would take VV take a DT a nectar-foraging VVG honey NN honey bee NN bee , , , Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. , , , to TO to pollinate VV pollinate a DT a single JJ single flower NN flower . SENT . Average JJ average pollen NN pollen deposition NN deposition for IN for nectar-foragers NNS ( ( ( A. NP A. mellifera NP and CC and Megachile NP rotundata NP F. NP F. ) ) ) did VVD do not RB not exceed VV exceed 13 CD @card@ tetrads NNS tetrad per IN per visit NN visit , , , which WDT which was VBD be significantly RB significantly less JJR less than IN than all DT all pollen-harvesters NNS . SENT . Among IN amongst pollen-harvesters NNS , , , Bombus NP spp. JJ workers NNS worker , , , M. NP M. rotundata NP and CC and Halictus NP spp. NP deposited VVD deposit moderate JJ moderate stigmatic JJ stigmatic loads NNS load ( ( ( 34 CD @card@ , , , 28 CD @card@ , , , and CC and 26 CD @card@ tetrads NNS tetrad , , , respectively RB respectively ) ) ) , , , whereas IN whereas Bombus NP spp. JJ queens NNS queen and CC and Andrena NP spp. JJ deposited VVN deposit > SYM > 45 CD @card@ tetrads NNS tetrad per IN per single JJ single visit NN visit . SENT . Pollination NN pollination equivalencies NNS equivalency show VVP show A. NP A. mellifera NN would MD would have VH have to TO to visit VV visit a DT a flower NN flower four CD four times NNS time to TO to deposit VV deposit the DT the same JJ same amount NN amount of IN of pollen NN pollen as IN as single JJ single visits NNS visit by IN by Bombus NP spp. JJ queens NNS queen or CC or Andrena NP spp NN . SENT . The DT the mineral NN mineral content NN content of IN of honeybee-collected VVN pollen NN pollen from IN from 34 CD @card@ floral JJ floral species NNS specie was VBD be analysed VVN analyse for IN for 10 CD @card@ elements NNS element . SENT . The DT the mean JJ mean concentrations NNS concentration ( ( ( mg/kg NP ) ) ) of IN of major JJ major and CC and minor JJ minor elements NNS element were VBD be the DT the following NN following : : : potassium NN potassium ( ( ( K NP K ) ) ) 5530 NP @card@ , , , phosphorus NN phosphorus ( ( ( P NN P ) ) ) 4600 CD @card@ , , , sulfur NN sulphur ( ( ( S NP S ) ) ) 2378 NP @card@ , , , calcium NN calcium ( ( ( Ca NP Ca ) ) ) 1146 NP @card@ , , , magnesium NN magnesium ( ( ( Mg NN mg ) ) ) 716 CD @card@ , , , sodium NN sodium ( ( ( Na NP Na ) ) ) 82 NP @card@ , , , iron NN iron ( ( ( Fe NP Fe ) ) ) 67 NP @card@ , , , zinc NN zinc ( ( ( Zn NP ) ) ) 58 NP @card@ , , , manganese NN manganese ( ( ( Mn NP ) ) ) 33 CD @card@ and CC and copper NN copper ( ( ( Cu NP ) ) ) 12 CD @card@ . SENT . Close JJ close correlations NNS correlation existed VVN exist between IN between Mn NP and CC and Cu NP , , , P NN P and CC and S NP S , , , K NP K and CC and S NP S and CC and K NP K and CC and Zn NP . SENT . Single JJ single species NNS specie demonstrated VVD demonstrate similar JJ similar element NN element profiles NNS profile . SENT . Echium NP plantagineum NN pollen NN pollen had VHD have a DT a high JJ high mean JJ mean concentration NN concentration of IN of P NN P ( ( ( 7411 CD @card@ mg/kg NN ) ) ) and CC and S NP S ( ( ( 3133 CD @card@ mg/kg NN ) ) ) when WRB when compared VVN compare with IN with the DT the mean NN mean of IN of the DT the total NN total ; : ; Brassica NN brassica napus NN pollen NN pollen had VHD have high JJ high concentration NN concentration of IN of Mg NN mg ( ( ( 1400 CD @card@ mg/kg NN ) ) ) and CC and Ca NP Ca ( ( ( 1750 CD @card@ mg/kg NN ) ) ) and CC and low JJ low concentration NN concentration of IN of Fe NP Fe ( ( ( 27 CD @card@ mg/kg NN ) ) ) ; : ; Hypochoeris NP radicata NP had VHD have low JJ low concentrations NNS concentration of IN of 6 CD 6 elements NNS element - : - Fe NP Fe ( ( ( 4.5 CD @card@ mg/kg NN ) ) ) , , , Zn NP ( ( ( 20 CD @card@ mg/kg NN ) ) ) , , , Mg NN mg ( ( ( 240 CD @card@ mg/kg NN ) ) ) , , , S NP S ( ( ( 1400 CD @card@ mg/kg NN ) ) ) , , , P NN P ( ( ( 2066 CD @card@ mg/kg NN ) ) ) and CC and K NP K ( ( ( 2433 CD @card@ mg/kg NN ) ) ) . SENT . Asphodelus NN fistulosus NN had VHD have the DT the highest JJS high concentration NN concentration of IN of K NP K at IN at 38000 CD @card@ mg/kg NN , , , the DT the next JJ next highest JJS high value NN value of IN of 8200 CD @card@ mg/kg NN being VBG being for IN for Prunus NP dulcis NN . SENT . We PP we conducted VVD conduct research NN research on IN on the DT the potential JJ potential impacts NNS impact of IN of fluvalinate NN and CC and coumaphos NNS on IN on honey NN honey bee NN bee , , , Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. , , , queen NN queen viability NN viability and CC and health NN health . SENT . Queens NP Queens were VBD be reared VVN rear in IN in colonies NNS colony that WDT that had VHD have been VBN be treated VVN treat with IN with differing VVG differ amounts NNS amount of IN of both DT both fluvalinate NN and CC and coumaphos NNS . SENT . Pre- NN pre- and CC and posttreatment NN samples NNS sample of IN of both DT both wax NN wax and CC and bees NNS bee were VBD be collected VVN collect from IN from all DT all of IN of the DT the colonies NNS colony and CC and analyzed VVD analyse for IN for total JJ total concentrations NNS concentration of IN of fluvalinate NN and CC and coumaphos NNS . SENT . All DT all queens NNS queen were VBD be measured VVN measured for IN for queen NN queen weight NN weight , , , ovarial JJ weight NN weight , , , and CC and number NN number of IN of sperm NN sperm in IN in the DT the spermathecae NN . SENT . The DT the queens NNS queen treated VVN treat with IN with high JJ high doses NNS dose of IN of fluvalinate NN weighed VVD weigh significantly RB significantly less JJR less than IN than low-dose NN low-dose or CC or control NN control queens NNS queen , , , but CC but otherwise RB otherwise appeared VVD appear to TO to develop VV develop normally RB normally . SENT . The DT the highest JJS high fluvalinate JJ concentrations NNS concentration were VBD be observed VVN observe in IN in the DT the wax NN wax and CC and queen NN queen cells NNS cell of IN of the DT the high-dose NN high-dose group NN group . SENT . The DT the developing VVG develop queens NNS queen in IN in colonies NNS colony treated VVN treat with IN with as RB as little JJ little as IN as one CD one coumaphos-impregnated VVN strip NN strip for IN for more JJR more than IN than 24 CD @card@ h NN h suffered VVD suffer a DT a high JJ high mortality NN mortality rate NN rate . SENT . Several JJ several of IN of the DT the queens NNS queen showed VVD show sublethal JJ effects NNS effect from IN from the DT the coumaphos NNS , , , including VVG include physical JJ physical abnormalities NNS abnormality and CC and atypical JJ atypical behavior NN behaviour . SENT . The DT the queens NNS queen exposed VVN expose to TO to coumaphos NNS weighed VVD weigh significantly RB significantly less RBR less and CC and had VHD have lower JJR low ovary NN ovary weights NNS weight than IN than the DT the control NN control group NN group queens NNS queen . SENT . The DT the highest JJS high coumaphos NN concentrations NNS concentration were VBD be observed VVN observe in IN in the DT the queen NN queen cells NNS cell and CC and wax NN wax of IN of the DT the high-dose NN high-dose groups NNS group . SENT . Alfalfa NN alfalfa ( ( ( =lucerne JJ ) ) ) flowers NNS flower require VVP require visiting VVG visit bees NNS bee to TO to trip NN trip the DT the sexual JJ sexual column NN column , , , thereby RB thereby providing VVG provided pollination NN pollination and CC and subsequent JJ subsequent pod NN and CC and seed NN seed set NN set . SENT . Previous JJ previous studies NNS study have VHP have compared VVN compare the DT the pollination NN pollination values VVZ value of IN of different JJ different bee NN bee species NNS specie solely RB solely by IN by the DT the speed NN speed with IN with which WDT which they PP they handle VVP handle flowers NNS flower and CC and the DT the proportion NN proportion of IN of visited VVN visit flowers NNS flower tripped VVN trip . SENT . In IN in this DT this greenhouse NN greenhouse study NN study , , , five CD five species NNS specie of IN of bees NNS bee , , , including VVG include the DT the three CD three commercially RB commercially managed VVN manage U.S NP U.S alfalfa NN alfalfa pollinators NNS pollinator , , , are VBP be likewise RB likewise compared VVN compare for IN for their PP$ their floral JJ floral tripping VVG trip frequencies NNS frequency . SENT . These DT these bee NN bee species NNS specie are VBP be also RB also compared VVN compare for IN for the DT the pod JJ set NN set and CC and mature JJ mature seed NN seed that IN that results NNS result from IN from their PP$ their single JJ single visits NNS visit to TO to virgin JJ virgin flowers NNS flower . SENT . Regardless RB regardless of IN of the DT the identity NN identity of IN of the DT the pollinating VVG pollinate bee NN bee , , , tripped VVN trip flowers NNS flower had VHD have the DT the same JJ same probabilities NNS probability of IN of pod JJ set NN set and CC and seed NN seed set NN set . SENT . Thus RB thus , , , differences NNS difference in IN in the DT the single-visit NN pollination NN pollination efficiencies NNS efficiency of IN of the DT the various JJ various bee NN bee species NNS specie are VBP be entirely RB entirely attributable JJ attributable to TO to the DT the proportion NN proportion of IN of visited VVN visit flowers NNS flower that IN that they PP they trip NN trip . SENT . Females NNS female of IN of the DT the alkali NN alkali bee NN bee , , , Nomia NP melanderi NP Cockerell NP Cockerell , , , and CC and the DT the alfalfa NN alfalfa leafcutting NN bee NN bee , , , Megachile NP rotundata NN F NN F , , , tripped VVN trip 81 CD @card@ and CC and 78 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of visited VVN visit flowers NNS flower , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . Males NNS male of IN of these DT these species NNS specie are VBP be significantly RB significantly less RBR less effective JJ effective ( ( ( 61 CD @card@ and CC and 51 CD @card@ % NN % , , , respectively RB respectively ) ) ) , , , but CC but still RB still significantly RB significantly superior JJ superior to TO to the DT the honey NN honey bee NN bee , , , Apis NP mellifera NP L NP L . SENT . ( ( ( 22 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of visited VVN visit flowers NNS flower tripped VVN trip ) ) ) . SENT . These DT these relationships NNS relationship are VBP be supported VVN support by IN by field NN field data NNS datum for IN for tripping VVG trip frequencies NNS frequency . SENT . One CD One candidate NN candidate pollinator NN pollinator , , , Osmia NP sanrafaelae NP Parker NP Parker , , , shows VVZ show promise NN promise ( ( ( 44 CD @card@ % NN % tripped VVN trip ) ) ) , , , but CC but not RB not the DT the congeneric JJ congeneric O. NP O. aglaia NP Sandhouse NP ( ( ( 13 CD @card@ % NN % tripped VVN trip ) ) ) . SENT . This DT this meeting NN meeting on IN on bee NN bee research NN research consists VVZ consist of IN of abstracts NNS abstract for IN for 52 CD @card@ presentations NNS presentation . SENT . Each DT each abstract JJ abstract is VBZ be written VVN write in IN in English NP English , , , French NP French , , , and CC and German NP German . SENT . Session NN session themes NNS theme cover VVP cover bee NN bee forage NN forage and CC and pollination NN pollination , , , plant NN plant protection NN protection , , , bee NN bee pathology NN pathology , , , behavioral JJ behavioral physiology NN physiology , , , breeding NN breeding , , , management NN management , , , phylogeny NN phylogeny of IN of Apis NP , , , and CC and other JJ other hymenoptera NN . SENT . Selected JJ selected topics NNS topic include VVP include genetic JJ genetic structure NN structure of IN of sweat NN sweat bee NN bee Lasioglossum NP malachurum NN , , , biodiversity NN of IN of euglossine JJ bees NNS bee of IN of southern JJ southern Brazil NP Brazil , , , paternity NN paternity distribution NN distribution , , , thorax NN thorax temperatures NNS temperature of IN of honeybees NNS honeybee inside RB inside combs VVZ comb , , , flight NN flight duration NN duration of IN of workers NNS worker infested VVN infest with IN with Varroa NP destructor NN destructor , , , and CC and pharmaceutical JJ pharmaceutical perspectives NNS perspective of IN of tetracyclines NNS tetracycline in IN in honey NN honey . SENT . To TO To estimate VV estimate the DT the effective JJ effective size NN size ( ( ( Ne NP Ne ) ) ) of IN of populations NNS population with IN with unequal JJ unequal sex NN sex ratio NN ratio , , , a DT a well-known JJ well-known formula NN formula , , , Ne=4NmNf/ NP ( ( ( Nm+Nf NP ) ) ) , , , has VHZ have been VBN be frequently RB frequently used VVN use , , , where WRB where Nm NP and CC and Nf NP are VBP be the DT the numbers NNS number of IN of male JJ male and CC and female JJ female parents NNS parent , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . In IN in this DT this paper NN paper , , , the DT the formula NN formula was VBD be examined VVN examine under IN under typical JJ typical mating NN mating systems NNS system in IN in animals NNS animal . SENT . It PP it was VBD be shown VVN show that IN that the DT the formula NN formula holds VVZ hold only RB only when WRB when there EX there are VBP be no DT no variations NNS variation in IN in the DT the numbers NNS number of IN of mates NNS mat_e ( ( ( mating VVG mate success NN success ) ) ) of IN of parents NNS parent of IN of each DT each sex NN sex . SENT . More RBR more appropriate JJ appropriate equations NNS equation were VBD be developed VVN develop by IN by accounting NN accounting for IN for the DT the variation NN variation in IN in mating NN mating success NN success . SENT . It PP it was VBD be found VVN find that IN that for IN for animal JJ animal populations NNS population with IN with harem NN harem mating NN mating system NN system , , , an DT an equation NN equation Ne=4NmNf/ NP ( ( ( 2Nm+Nf NP ) ) ) gives VVZ give a DT a more RBR more accurate JJ accurate estimate NN estimate than IN than the DT the well-known JJ well-known formula NN formula . SENT . The DT the effective JJ effective population NN population sizes NNS size of IN of several JJ several wild JJ wild , , , experimental JJ experimental and CC and domestic JJ domestic animals NNS animal are VBP be estimated VVN estimate by IN by applying VVG apply the DT the derived VVN derive equations NNS equation to TO to the DT the published VVN publish demographic JJ demographic and CC and ecological JJ ecological data NNS datum . SENT . Dufour NP Dufour 's POS 's gland NN gland ( ( ( DG NP DG ) ) ) secretion NN secretion of IN of queens NNS queen in IN in Apis NP mellifera NN is VBZ be normally RB normally caste NN caste specific NN specific . SENT . In IN in queenright NN ( ( ( QR NP ) ) ) workers NNS worker it PP it is VBZ be composed VVN compose of IN of odd JJ odd n NN n alkanes NNS alkane , , , while IN while in IN in queens NNS queen it PP it also RB also possesses VVZ possess long JJ long chain NN chain esters NNS ester . SENT . However RB however , , , glandular JJ glandular expression NN expression is VBZ be plastic JJ plastic since IN since queenless JJ ( ( ( QL NP ) ) ) workers NNS worker produce VVP produce a DT a queen-like JJ secretion NN secretion . SENT . Moreover RB moreover , , , QR NP gland NN gland incubated VVN incubate in IN in vitro NN produced VVD produce these DT these esters NNS ester , , , indicating VVG indicate that DT that glandular JJ glandular activity NN activity is VBZ be regulated VVN regulate . SENT . We PP we tested VVD test the DT the hypothesis NN hypothesis that IN that the DT the secretion NN secretion is VBZ be an DT an egg NN egg marking VVG mark pheromone NN pheromone . SENT . Chemical NP Chemical analysis NN analysis of IN of the DT the egg NN egg coating NN coating revealed VVD reveal minute JJ minute amounts NNS amount of IN of the DT the queen NN queen esters NNS ester , , , but CC but neither DT neither queen NN queen secretion NN secretion nor CC nor the DT the synthetic JJ synthetic esters NNS ester were VBD be able JJ able to TO to protect VV protect worker-laid VVN eggs NNS egg from IN from policing VVG police , , , refuting VVG refute the DT the hypothesis NN hypothesis . SENT . Analysis NN analysis of IN of abdominal JJ abdominal tips NNS tip further RB farther revealed VVD reveal that IN that Dufour NP Dufour 's POS 's egg NN egg secretion NN secretion is VBZ be also RB also smeared VVN smear on IN on the DT the abdominal JJ abdominal cuticle NN cuticle , , , suggesting VVG suggest that IN that its PP$ its presence NN presence on IN on egg NN egg surface NN surface may MD may be VB be due JJ due to TO to passive JJ passive contamination NN contamination . SENT . Next RB next , , , we PP we tested VVD test the DT the hypothesis NN hypothesis that IN that the DT the secretion NN secretion serves VVZ serve as IN as a DT a queen NN queen signal NN signal . SENT . Indeed RB indeed queens NNS queen , , , but CC but not RB not worker NN worker glandular JJ glandular secretion NN secretion were VBD be attractive JJ attractive to TO to workers NNS worker . SENT . The DT the study NN study evaluated VVD evaluate the DT the technical JJ technical feasibility NN feasibility of IN of distinguishing VVG distinguish the DT the different JJ different honeybee NN honeybee blood NN blood cells NNS cell by IN by flow NN flow cytometric JJ analysis NN analysis with IN with and CC and without IN without staining VVG stain by IN by 3 CD 3 lectins NNS : : : soybean NN soya agglutinin NN agglutinin ( ( ( SBA NP SBA ) ) ) , , , concanavalin NP A NP A ( ( ( ConA NP ) ) ) and CC and wheat NN wheat germ NN germ agglutinin NN agglutinin ( ( ( WGA NP WGA ) ) ) . SENT . Flow NN flow cytometric JJ analysis NN analysis of IN of unstained JJ cells NNS cell provided VVD provided a DT a forward JJ forward scatter-side NN scatter NN scatter dotplot NN with IN with no DT no distinct JJ distinct haemocyte NN haemocyte population NN population . SENT . Examination NN examination of IN of blood NN blood samples NNS sample stained VVN stain with IN with FITC-labelled VVN ConA NP or CC or WGA NP WGA revealed VVD reveal a DT a notable JJ notable population NN population of IN of fluorescently JJ marked JJ marked cells NNS cell on IN on FL1-histograms NNS . SENT . Microscopic JJ microscopic analysis NN analysis , , , run VVN run parallel NN parallel , , , demonstrated VVD demonstrate low JJ low fluorescence NN fluorescence of IN of the DT the granular JJ granular cells NNS cell , , , strong JJ strong fluorescence NN fluorescence of IN of the DT the plasmatocytes NNS , , , with IN with P1 NN 's VBZ be stained VVN stain all RB all over IN over their PP$ their surfaces NNS surface and CC and P2 NN 's VBZ be with IN with a DT a rather RB rather dotted VVN dot appearance NN appearance . SENT . Prohaemocytes NNS were VBD be not RB not stained VVN stain at IN at all DT all . SENT . SBA-FITC NP did VVD do not RB not stain VV stain honeybee NN honeybee haemocytes NNS haemocyte as IN as demonstrated VVN demonstrate by IN by both PDT both the DT the flow NN flow cytometric NN and CC and the DT the microscopic JJ microscopic examinations NNS examination . SENT . Age-related JJ age-related division NN division of IN of labor NN labour in IN in honeybees NNS honeybee is VBZ be associated VVN associate with IN with plasticity NN plasticity in IN in circadian JJ circadian rhythms NNS rhythm . SENT . Young JJ young nest NN nest bees NNS bee care VVP care for IN for brood NN brood around IN around the DT the clock NN clock with IN with no DT no circadian JJ circadian rhythms NNS rhythm while IN while older JJR old foragers NNS forager have VHP have strong JJ strong circadian JJ circadian rhythms NNS rhythm that WDT that are VBP be used VVN use for IN for sun NN sun compass NN compass navigation NN navigation and CC and for IN for timing NN timing visits NNS visit to TO to flowers NNS flower . SENT . Since IN since juvenile JJ juvenile hormone NN hormone ( ( ( JH NP JH ) ) ) is VBZ be involved VVN involve in IN in the DT the coordination NN coordination of IN of physiological JJ physiological and CC and behavioral JJ behavioral processes NNS process underlying VVG underlie age-related JJ age-related division NN division of IN of labor NN labour in IN in honey NN honey bees NNS bee , , , we PP we tested VVD test the DT the hypothesis NN hypothesis that IN that JH NP JH influences VVZ influence the DT the ontogeny NN ontogeny of IN of circadian JJ circadian rhythms NNS rhythm and CC and other JJ other clock NN clock parameters NNS parameter in IN in young JJ young worker NN worker bees NNS bee . SENT . Treatments NNS treatment with IN with the DT the JH NP JH analog NN analogue methoprene NN or CC or allatectomy NN did VVD do not RB not influence VV influence the DT the onset NN onset of IN of rhythmicity NN rhythmicity , , , overall JJ overall locomotor JJ locomotor activity NN activity , , , or CC or the DT the free-running VVG period NN period of IN of rhythmic JJ rhythmical locomotor JJ locomotor behavior NN behaviour . SENT . There EX There were VBD be , , , however RB however , , , significant JJ significant differences NNS difference in IN in the DT the onset NN onset of IN of rhythmicity NN rhythmicity , , , overall JJ overall locomotor JJ locomotor activity NN activity , , , and CC and longevity NN longevity between IN between bees NNS bee from IN from different JJ different source NN source colonies NNS colony , , , suggesting VVG suggest that IN that there EX there is VBZ be significant JJ significant genetic JJ genetic variation NN variation for IN for these DT these traits NNS trait . SENT . Our PP$ our results NNS result suggest VVP suggest that IN that JH NP JH does VVZ do not RB not coordinate VV coordinate all DT all aspects NNS aspect of IN of division NN division of IN of labor NN labour in IN in bees NNS bee and CC and that DT that coordination NN coordination of IN of task NN task performance NN performance with IN with circadian JJ circadian rhythms NNS rhythm is VBZ be probably RB probably mediated VVN mediate by IN by other JJ other regulatory JJ regulative systems NNS system . SENT . The DT the protein NN protein pattern NN pattern of IN of the DT the venoms NNS venom of IN of both DT both Apis NP mellifera NP and CC and Anthophora NP pauperata NN has VHZ have been VBN be analysed VVN analyse using VVG use SDS-PAGE NP to TO to clarify VV clarify the DT the structure NN structure and CC and the DT the degree NN degree of IN of similarity NN similarity of IN of solitary JJ solitary bee NN bee venom NN venom to TO to the DT the most RBS most known JJ known social JJ social bee NN bee venom NN venom ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the data NNS datum showed VVD show that DT that Apis NP mellifera NN venom NN venom contains VVZ contain eleven NN eleven bands NNS band with IN with molecular JJ molecular weights NNS weight ranging VVG range from IN from 108 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ to TO to 2 CD 2 , , , 000D VVN while IN while Anthophora NP pauperata NN venom NN venom contains VVZ contain eighteen CD eighteen bands NNS band with IN with molecular JJ molecular weights NNS weight ranging VVG range from IN from 108 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ to TO to 6 CD 6 , , , 000D NN . SENT . Venoms NNS venom of IN of both DT both species NN species showed VVD show strong JJ strong similarities NNS similarity sharing VVG share bands NNS band with IN with molecular JJ molecular weights NNS weight 108 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ , , , 93 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ , , , 49 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ , , , 45 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ , , , 8 CD 8 , , , 000 CD @card@ and CC and 6 CD 6 , , , 000D NN . SENT . Anthophora NP pauperata NN venom NN venom is VBZ be characterized VVN characterize by IN by a DT a number NN number of IN of bands NNS band with IN with molecular JJ molecular weights NNS weight 37 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ , , , 32 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ , , , 28 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ , , , 25 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ , , , 20 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ , , , 17 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ , , , 13 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ and CC and 10 CD @card@ , , , 000D NN . SENT . While IN while venom NN venom of IN of Apis NP mellifera NP showed VVD show two CD two unique JJ unique bands NNS band with IN with molecular JJ molecular weights NNS weight 3 CD 3 , , , 000 CD @card@ and CC and 2 CD 2 , , , 000D NN . SENT . The DT the effect NN effect of IN of the DT the venom NN venom of IN of these DT these two CD two species NNS specie in IN in addition NN addition to TO to Bombus NP morrisoni NP venom NN venom on IN on the DT the blood NN blood indices NN indices ( ( ( red JJ red blood NN blood cells NNS cell count NN count ( ( ( RBCs NP ) ) ) , , , haemoglobin NN haemoglobin content NN content ( ( ( Hb NP ) ) ) , , , haematocrit NN haematocrit value NN value ( ( ( HCT NP ) ) ) , , , mean JJ mean cell NN cell volume NN volume ( ( ( MCV NP ) ) ) , , , mean JJ mean cell NN cell haemoglobin NN haemoglobin ( ( ( MCH NP ) ) ) , , , mean JJ mean cell NN cell haemoglobin NN haemoglobin concentration NN concentration ( ( ( MCHC NP ) ) ) ) ) ) and CC and erythrocyte NN erythrocyte osmotic JJ osmotic fragility NN fragility ( ( ( EOF NP ) ) ) showed VVD show that IN that there EX there is VBZ be no DT no significant JJ significant difference NN difference in IN in the DT the blood NN blood parameters NNS parameter measured VVN measured . SENT . Whereas IN whereas , , , a DT a highly RB highly significant JJ significant decrease NN decrease in IN in the DT the plasma NN plasma albumin NN albumin level NN level was VBD be determined VVN determine in IN in all DT all bee NN bee venoms NNS venom studied VVD study . SENT . One CD One approach NN approach to TO to understanding VVG understand proximate JJ proximate and CC and evolutionary JJ evolutionary mechanisms NNS mechanism of IN of social JJ social behavior NN behaviour is VBZ be to TO to analyze VV analyse mechanisms NNS mechanism of IN of neural JJ neural and CC and behavioral JJ behavioral plasticity NN plasticity and CC and their PP$ their underlying JJ underlying genes NNS gene . SENT . This DT this article NN article deals NNS deal with IN with such JJ such analyses NNS analysis in IN in the DT the honeybee NN honeybee Apis NN mellifera NN . SENT . The DT the first JJ first part NN part reviews VVZ review the DT the control NN control of IN of age-related JJ age-related division NN division of IN of labor NN labour in IN in honeybee NN honeybee colonies NNS colony with IN with special JJ special attention NN attention to TO to social JJ social , , , endocrine JJ endocrine , , , and CC and neurochemical JJ factors NNS factor . SENT . The DT the second JJ second part NN part reviews NNS revue progress NN progress in IN in studying VVG study changes NNS change in IN in gene NN gene expression NN expression that WDT that are VBP be associated VVN associate with IN with division NN division of IN of labor NN labour , , , including VVG include a DT a brief JJ brief description NN description of IN of a DT a genomics NN project NN project that WDT that involves VVZ involve a DT a set NN set of IN of 20 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ expressed VVD express sequence NN sequence tags NNS tag from IN from the DT the honeybee NN honeybee brain NN brain and CC and cDNA NN microarrays NNS for IN for large-scale JJ large-scale gene NN gene expression NN expression analysis NN analysis . SENT . The DT the article NN article concludes VVZ conclude by IN by considering VVG considering some DT some of IN of the DT the general JJ general issues NNS issue associated VVN associate with IN with studies NNS study of IN of genes NNS gene and CC and social JJ social behavior NN behaviour in IN in honeybees NNS honeybee . SENT . The DT the sharing NN sharing and CC and collective JJ collective processing NN processing of IN of information NN information by IN by certain JJ certain insect NN insect societies NNS society is VBZ be one CD one of IN of the DT the reasons NNS reason that IN that they PP they warrant VVP warrant the DT the superlative JJ superlative epithet NN epithet 'super-organisms NNS ' '' ' ( ( ( Franks NP Frank 1989 CD @card@ , , , Am NP Am . SENT . Sci. NP 77 CD @card@ , , , 138-145 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . We PP we describe VVP describe a DT a detailed JJ detailed experimental JJ experimental and CC and mathematical JJ mathematical analysis NN analysis of IN of information NN information exchange NN exchange and CC and decision-making NN decision-making in IN in , , , arguably RB arguably , , , the DT the most RBS most difficult JJ difficult collective JJ collective choices NNS choice that IN that social JJ social insects NNS insect face VVP face : : : namely RB namely , , , house NN house hunting NN hunting by IN by complete JJ complete societies NNS society . SENT . The DT the key JJ key issue NN issue is VBZ be how WRB how can MD can a DT a complete JJ complete colony NN colony select VV select the DT the single JJ single best JJS good nest-site NN among IN amongst several JJ several alternatives NNS alternative ? SENT ? Individual JJ individual scouts NNS scout respond VV respond to TO to the DT the diverse JJ diverse information NN information they PP they have VHP have personally RB personally obtained VVN obtain about IN about the DT the quality NN quality of IN of a DT a potential JJ potential nest-site NN by IN by producing VVG produce a DT a recruitment NN recruitment signal NN signal . SENT . The DT the colony NN colony then RB then deliberates VVZ deliberate over RP over ( ( ( i.e. FW i.e. integrates VVZ integrate ) ) ) different JJ different incoming JJ incoming recruitment NN recruitment signals NNS signal associated VVN associate with IN with different JJ different potential JJ potential nest-sites NNS to TO to achieve VV achieve a DT a well-informed JJ well-informed collective JJ collective decision NN decision . SENT . We PP we compare VVP compare this DT this process NN process in IN in honeybees NNS honeybee and CC and in IN in the DT the ant NN ant Leptothorax NN albipennis NN . SENT . Notwithstanding RB notwithstanding many JJ many differences-for IN example NN example , , , honeybee NN honeybee colonies NNS colony have VHP have 100 CD @card@ times NNS time more JJR more individuals NNS individual than IN than L. NP L. albipennis NN colonies-there EX are VBP be certain JJ certain similarities NNS similarity in IN in the DT the fundamental JJ fundamental algorithms NNS algorithm these DT these societies NNS society appear VVP appear to TO to employ VV employ when WRB when they PP they are VBP be house NN house hunting NN hunting . SENT . Scout NN scout honeybees NNS honeybee use VVP use the DT the full JJ full power NN power of IN of the DT the waggle NN waggle dance NN dance to TO to inform VV inform their PP$ their nest-mates NNS about IN about the DT the distance NN distance and CC and direction NN direction of IN of a DT a potential JJ potential nest-site NN ( ( ( and CC and they PP they indicate VVP indicate the DT the quality NN quality of IN of a DT a nest-site NN indirectly RB indirectly through IN through the DT the vigour NN vigour of IN of their PP$ their dance NN dance ) ) ) , , , and CC and yet RB yet individual JJ individual bees NNS bee perhaps RB perhaps only RB only rarely RB rarely make VV make direct JJ direct comparisons NNS comparison of IN of such JJ such sites NNS site . SENT . By IN by contrast NN contrast , , , scouts VVZ scout from IN from L. NP L. albipennis NN colonies NNS colony often RB often compare VVP compare nest-sites NNS , , , but CC but they PP they can MD can not RB not directly RB directly inform VV inform one PP one another DT another of IN of their PP$ their estimation NN estimation of IN of the DT the quality NN quality of IN of a DT a potential JJ potential site NN site . SENT . Instead RB instead , , , they PP they discriminate JJ discriminate between IN between sites NNS site by IN by initiating VVG initiate recruitment NN recruitment sooner RB sooner to TO to better JJR good ones NNS one . SENT . Nevertheless RB nevertheless , , , both DT both species NNS specie do VVP do make VV make use NN use of IN of forms NNS form of IN of opinion NN opinion polling NN polling . SENT . For IN for example NN example , , , scout NN scout bees NNS bee that WDT that have VHP have formerly RB formerly danced VVN dance for IN for a DT a certain JJ certain site NN site cease VV cease such JJ such advertising NN advertising and CC and monitor VV monitor the DT the dances NNS dance of IN of others NNS other at IN at random JJ random . SENT . That DT that is VBZ be , , , they PP they act VVP act without IN without prejudice NN prejudice . SENT . They PP they neither RB neither favour VV favour nor CC nor disdain VV disdain dancers NNS dancer that WDT that advocate VVP advocate the DT the site NN site they PP they had VHD have formerly RB formerly advertised VVN advertise or CC or the DT the alternatives NNS alternative . SENT . Thus RB thus , , , in IN in general JJ general the DT the bees NNS bee are VBP be less RBR less well RB well informed VVN inform than IN than they PP they would MD would be VB be if IN if they PP they systematically RB systematically monitored VVD monitor dances NNS dance for IN for alternative JJ alternative sites NNS site rather RB rather than IN than spending VVG spend their PP$ their time NN time reprocessing VVG reprocess information NN information they PP they already RB already have VHP have . SENT . However RB however , , , as IN as a DT a result NN result of IN of their PP$ their lack NN lack of IN of prejudice NN prejudice , , , less JJR less time NN time overall RB overall will MD will be VB be wasted VVN waste in IN in endless JJ endless debate NN debate among IN amongst stubborn JJ stubborn and CC and potentially RB potentially biased VVN bias bees NNS bee . SENT . Among IN amongst the DT the ants NNS ant , , , the DT the opinions NNS opinion of IN of nest NN nest -mates NNS are VBP be also RB also pooled VVN pool effectively RB effectively when WRB when scouts NNS scout use VVP use a DT a threshold NN threshold population NN population of IN of their PP$ their nest-mates NNS present JJ present in IN in a DT a new JJ new nest-site NN as IN as a DT a cue NN cue to TO to switch VV switch to TO to more JJR more rapid JJ rapid recruitment NN recruitment . SENT . Furthermore RB furthermore , , , the DT the ants NNS ant ' POS ' reluctance NN reluctance to TO to begin VV begin recruiting VVG recruit to TO to poor JJ poor nest-sites NNS means VVZ mean that DT that more JJR more time NN time is VBZ be available JJ available for IN for the DT the discovery NN discovery and CC and direct JJ direct comparison NN comparison of IN of alternatives NNS alternative . SENT . Likewise RB likewise , , , the DT the retirement NN retirement of IN of honeybee NN honeybee scouts NNS scout from IN from dancing NN dancing for IN for a DT a given VVN give site NN site allows VVZ allow more JJR more time NN time for IN for other JJ other scouts NNS scout to TO to find VV find potentially RB potentially better JJR good sites NNS site . SENT . Thus RB thus , , , both PDT both the DT the ants NNS ant and CC and the DT the bees NNS bee have VHP have time NN time -lags NNS built VVN build into IN into their PP$ their decision-making NN decision-making systems NNS system that WDT that should MD should facilitate VV facilitate a DT a compromise NN compromise between IN between thorough JJ thorough surveys NNS survey for IN for good JJ good nest-sites NNS and CC and relatively RB relatively rapid JJ rapid decisions NNS decision . SENT . We PP we have VHP have also RB also been VBN be able JJ able to TO to show VV show that DT that classical JJ classical mathematical JJ mathematical models NNS model can MD can illuminate VV illuminate the DT the processes NNS process by IN by which WDT which colonies NNS colony are VBP be able JJ able to TO to achieve VV achieve decisions NNS decision that WDT that are VBP be relatively RB relatively swift JJ swift and CC and very RB very well RB well informed VVN inform . SENT . Upon IN upon discovering VVG discover new JJ new sources NNS source of IN of food NN food , , , honeybees NNS honeybee and CC and other JJ other insects NNS insect perform VVP perform learning VVG learn flights NNS flight to TO to memorize VV memorize visual JJ visual landmarks NNS landmark that WDT that can MD can guide VV guide their PP$ their return NN return . SENT . Learning VVG learn flights NNS flight are VBP be longest JJS long following VVG follow initial JJ initial visits NNS visit to TO to the DT the food NN food and CC and subsequently RB subsequently decline VV decline in IN in duration NN duration , , , which WDT which suggests VVZ suggest that IN that the DT the investment NN investment in IN in learning VVG learn results NNS result from IN from an DT an active JJ active decision NN decision modulated VVN modulate by IN by a DT a bee NN bee 's POS 's accumulating VVG accumulate experience NN experience . SENT . We PP we document VV document various JJ various factors NNS factor that WDT that influence VVP influence this DT this decision NN decision : : : ( ( ( 1 LS 1 ) ) ) learning VVG learn flights NNS flight reappear VV reappear when WRB when experienced JJ experienced bees NNS bee encounter VV encounter a DT a delay NN delay in IN in finding VVG find food NN food at IN at a DT a familiar JJ familiar place NN place and CC and the DT the durations NNS duration of IN of such JJ such `` `` `` reorientation NN reorientation flights NNS flight '' '' '' increase NN increase with IN with the DT the length NN length of IN of the DT the delay NN delay ; : ; ( ( ( 2 LS 2 ) ) ) the DT the decay NN decay in IN in learning VVG learn flight NN flight duration NN duration over IN over visits NNS visit following VVG follow such JJ such reorientation NN reorientation flights NNS flight is VBZ be more RBR more rapid JJ rapid than IN than following VVG follow initial JJ initial discovery NN discovery of IN of the DT the food NN food ; : ; ( ( ( 3 LS 3 ) ) ) learning VVG learn flight NN flight duration NN duration increases NNS increase with IN with the DT the visual JJ visual complexity NN complexity of IN of the DT the scene NN scene surrounding VVG surround the DT the food NN food , , , and CC and when WRB when spatial JJ spatial relationships NNS relationship among IN amongst landmarks NNS landmark are VBP be unstable JJ unstable ; : ; and CC and ( ( ( 4 LS 4 ) ) ) durations NNS duration of IN of learning VVG learn flights NNS flight at IN at a DT a new JJ new feeding NN feeding place NN place are VBP be influenced VVN influence by IN by the DT the sucrose NN sucrose concentration NN concentration in IN in the DT the food NN food . SENT . Taken VVN take together RB together , , , these DT these experiments NNS experiment suggest VVP suggest that IN that bees NNS bee can MD can adjust VV adjust their PP$ their learning VVG learn efforts NNS effort in IN in response NN response to TO to changing VVG change needs NNS need for IN for visual JJ visual information NN information and CC and that IN that both DT both sources NNS source of IN of spatial JJ spatial uncertainty NN uncertainty and CC and the DT the quality NN quality of IN of the DT the food NN food influence NN influence the DT the value NN value of IN of such JJ such information NN information . SENT . Defending VVG defend a DT a large JJ large social JJ social insect NN insect colony NN colony containing VVG contain several JJ several thousands NNS thousand of IN of workers NNS worker requires VVZ require the DT the simultaneous JJ simultaneous action NN action of IN of many JJ many individuals NNS individual . SENT . Ideally RB ideally this DT this action NN action involves VVZ involve communication NN communication between IN between the DT the workers NNS worker , , , enabling VVG enable coordinated VVN coordinate action NN action and CC and a DT a fast JJ fast response NN response . SENT . The DT the Asian JJ Asian dwarf NN dwarf honeybee NN honeybee , , , Apis NP florea NP Florea , , , is VBZ be a DT a small JJ small honeybee NN honeybee with IN with an DT an open JJ open nesting VVG nest habit NN habit and CC and a DT a comparatively RB comparatively small JJ small colony NN colony size NN size , , , features NNS feature that WDT that leave VVP leave them PP them particularly RB particularly exposed VVD expose to TO to predators NNS predator . SENT . We PP we describe VVP describe here RB here a DT a novel JJ novel defence NN defence response NN response of IN of these DT these bees NNS bee in IN in which WDT which the DT the emission NN emission of IN of an DT an initial JJ initial warning NN warning signal NN signal from IN from one CD one individual NN individual ( ( ( `` `` `` piping VVG piping '' '' '' ) ) ) is VBZ be followed VVN follow 0.3 CD @card@ to TO to 0.7 CD @card@ seconds NNS second later RB later by IN by a DT a general JJ general response NN response from IN from a DT a large JJ large number NN number of IN of bees NNS bee ( ( ( `` `` `` hissing VVG hiss '' '' '' ) ) ) . SENT . Piping VVG piping is VBZ be audible JJ audible to TO to the DT the human JJ human ear NN ear , , , with IN with a DT a fundamental JJ fundamental frequency NN frequency of IN of 384+-31Hz JJ and CC and lasting JJ lasting for IN for 0.82+-0.35 CD seconds NNS second . SENT . Hissing VVG hiss is VBZ be a DT a broad JJ broad band NN band , , , noisy JJ noisy signal NN signal , , , clearly RB clearly audible JJ audible to TO to the DT the human JJ human observer NN observer and CC and produced VVN produce by IN by slight JJ slight but CC but visible JJ visible movements NNS movement of IN of the DT the bees NNS bee ' POS ' wings NNS wing . SENT . Hissing VVG hiss begins VVZ begin in IN in individuals NNS individual close RB close to TO to the DT the piping JJ piping bee NN bee , , , spreads VVZ spread rapidly RB rapidly to TO to neighbours NNS neighbour and CC and results NNS result in IN in an DT an impressive JJ impressive coordinated VVN coordinate crescendo NN crescendo occasionally RB occasionally involving VVG involve the DT the entire JJ entire colony NN colony . SENT . Piping VVG piping and CC and hissing VVG hiss are VBP be accompanied VVN accompany by IN by a DT a marked JJ marked decrease NN decrease , , , or CC or even RB even cessation NN cessation , , , of IN of worker NN worker activities NNS activity such JJ such as IN as forager NN forager dancing NN dancing and CC and departures NNS departure from IN from the DT the colony NN colony . SENT . We PP we show VVP show that IN that whereas IN whereas hissing VVG hiss of IN of the DT the colony NN colony can MD can be VB be elicited VVN elicit without IN without piping NN piping , , , the DT the sequential JJ sequential and CC and correlated VVD correlate piping VVG piping and CC and hissing VVG hiss response NN response is VBZ be specific JJ specific to TO to the DT the presence NN presence of IN of potential JJ potential predators NNS predator close RB close to TO to the DT the colony NN colony . SENT . We PP we suggest VVP suggest that IN that the DT the combined JJ combined audio-visual JJ audio-visual effect NN effect of IN of the DT the hissing VVG hiss might MD might deter VV deter small JJ small predators NNS predator , , , while IN while the DT the cessation NN cessation of IN of flight NN flight activity NN activity could MD could decrease VV decrease the DT the risk NN risk of IN of predation NN predation by IN by birds NNS bird and CC and insects NNS insect which WDT which prey VVP prey selectively RB selectively on IN on flying VVG fly bees NNS bee . SENT . The DT the importance NN importance of IN of the DT the spatial JJ spatial information NN information which WDT which is VBZ be communicated VVN communicate in IN in the DT the Carnolian NP Race NP Race of IN of the DT the Western JJ Western Honeybee NN honeybee , , , Apis NP mellifera NP carnica NP ( ( ( Pollmann NP Pollmann 1879 CD @card@ ) ) ) waggle NN waggle dance NN dance relative JJ relative to TO to other JJ other cues NNS cue used VVN use by IN by bees NNS bee in IN in finding VVG find food NN food sources NNS source was VBD be investigated VVN investigate . SENT . The DT the efficiency NN efficiency of IN of recruitment NN recruitment with IN with and CC and without IN without transmission NN transmission of IN of direction NN direction information NN information in IN in the DT the waggle NN waggle dance NN dance was VBD be quantified VVN quantify using VVG use artificial JJ artificial , , , plentiful JJ plentiful unscented JJ unscented food NN food sources NNS source and CC and hives NNS hive which WDT which were VBD be turned VVN turn to TO to a DT a horizontal JJ horizontal position NN position to TO to disrupt VV disrupt orientation NN orientation of IN of dancing VVG dance bees NNS bee and CC and thereby RB thereby eliminate VV eliminate the DT the spatial JJ spatial information NN information from IN from dances NNS dance . SENT . Transmission NN transmission of IN of location NN location information NN information seems VVZ seem to TO to improve VV improve recruitment NN recruitment effect NN effect particularly RB particularly at IN at large JJ large distances NNS distance . SENT . Recruitment NN recruitment declines NNS decline more RBR more rapidly RB rapidly with IN with distance NN distance if IN if dances NNS dance are VBP be disoriented VVN disorientate , , , and CC and for IN for large JJ large distances NNS distance it PP it takes VVZ take a DT a few JJ few hours NNS hour before IN before a DT a foraging VVG forage group NN group is VBZ be established VVN establish . SENT . However RB however , , , this DT this shows NNS show that IN that even RB even without IN without dance NN dance information NN information , , , foragers NNS forager manage VVP manage to TO to recruit VV recruit some DT some bees NNS bee to TO to their PP$ their food NN food source NN source . SENT . This DT this process NN process , , , however RB however , , , is VBZ be so RB so slow JJ slow that IN that by IN by the DT the time NN time a DT a group NN group of IN of recruits NNS recruit has VHZ have reached VVN reach the DT the food NN food source NN source , , , it PP it may MD may not RB not be VB be worth IN worth exploiting VVG exploit any DT any more RBR more . SENT . Transmission NN transmission of IN of spatial JJ spatial information NN information thus RB thus is VBZ be especially RB especially important JJ important if IN if distant JJ distant food NN food sources NNS source which WDT which often RB often change VVP change in IN in nectar NN nectar availability NN availability are VBP be exploited VVN exploit . SENT . Within IN within the DT the Apiaceae NP , , , subtle JJ subtle variation NN variation in IN in reproductive JJ reproductive characters NNS character such JJ such as IN as dichogamy NN dichogamy , , , pollinator NN pollinator specificity NN specificity and CC and umbel NN umbel density NN density may MD may cause VV cause cryptic JJ cryptic specialisation NN specialization and CC and be VB be responsible JJ responsible for IN for the DT the diversity NN diversity of IN of life NN life histories NNS history and CC and gender NN gender expression NN expression in IN in the DT the family NN family . SENT . To TO To address VV address the DT the paucity NN paucity of IN of information NN information for IN for Australian JJ Australian species NNS specie we PP we investigated VVD investigate the DT the reproductive JJ reproductive ecology NN ecology of IN of the DT the native JJ native perennial JJ perennial herb NN herb , , , Trachymene NP incisa NP Rudge NP Rudge subsp. JJ incisa NN . SENT . T. NP T. incisa NP exhibits VVZ exhibit protandry NN protandry within IN within flowers NNS flower and CC and umbels NNS umbel ; : ; however RB however , , , an DT an overlap VVP overlap of IN of 3 CD 3 days NNS day in IN in male JJ male and CC and female JJ female phases NNS phase among IN amongst umbels NNS umbel of IN of consecutive JJ consecutive orders NNS order permits VVZ permit geitonogamous JJ pollination NN pollination . SENT . There EX There are VBP be 72+-2.0 CD ( ( ( n=74 NN ) ) ) white JJ white flowers NNS flower per IN per umbel NN umbel and CC and nectar NN nectar is VBZ be presented VVN present during IN during the DT the male JJ male and CC and female JJ female phases NNS phase . SENT . Apis NP mellifera NP appears VVZ appear to TO to be VB be the DT the main JJ main diurnal JJ diurnal pollinator NN pollinator . SENT . The DT the pollen NN pollen : : : ovule NN ovule ratio NN ratio is VBZ be 1902 CD @card@ : : : 1 CD 1 , , , indicating VVG indicate that DT that T. NP T. incisa NN is VBZ be a DT a facultatively RB facultatively xenogamous JJ xenogamous species NNS specie . SENT . The DT the long JJ long phase NN phase of IN of pollen NN pollen presentation NN presentation and CC and the DT the low JJ low natural JJ natural seed NN seed set VVN set of IN of about RB about 45 CD @card@ % NN % implies VVZ imply that IN that many JJ many flowers NNS flower are VBP be functioning VVG function as IN as pollen NN pollen donors NNS donor only RB only . SENT . Controlled VVN control pollination NN pollination experiments NNS experiment showed VVD show that DT that self-pollen NN led VVD lead to TO to lower JJR low seed NN seed set VVN set than IN than cross NN crosslet , , , open JJ open and CC and supplemental JJ supplemental applications NNS application . SENT . Early JJ early and CC and late JJ late -produced JJ cohorts NNS cohort differed VVD differ in IN in days NNS day to TO to emergence NN emergence but CC but not RB not in IN in seed NN seed mass NN mass or CC or final JJ final percentage NN percentage emergence NN emergence . SENT . Background NN background : : : Hymenoptera NP venom NN venom immunotherapy NN immunotherapy in IN in allergic JJ allergic patients NNS patient is VBZ be a DT a well RB well -established JJ treatment NN treatment modality NN modality for IN for the DT the prevention NN prevention of IN of systemic JJ systemic anaphylactic JJ reactions NNS reaction caused VVN cause by IN by insect NN insect stings NNS sting . SENT . A DT a variety NN variety of IN of therapy NN therapy regimens NNS regimen exists VVZ exist , , , from IN from conventional JJ conventional to TO to rush VV rush and CC and ultrarush VV modalities NNS modality that WDT that operate VVP operate on IN on continuous JJ continuous or CC or intermittent JJ intermittent schedules NNS schedule . SENT . Objective NN objective : : : The DT the aim NN aim of IN of this DT this study NN study was VBD be to TO to report VV report the DT the 8-year NN experience NN experience with IN with our PP$ our rush NN rush venom NN venom immunotherapy NN immunotherapy regimen NN regimen in IN in predominantly RB predominantly high-risk JJ high-risk patients NNS patient and CC and to TO to compare VV compare data NNS datum on IN on safety NN safety and CC and convenience NN convenience with IN with the DT the results NNS result of IN of 26 CD @card@ studies NNS study published VVN publish from IN from 1978 CD @card@ to TO to 2001 CD @card@ . SENT . Methods NNS method : : : One CD One hundred CD hundred one NN one patients NNS patient allergic JJ allergic to TO to bee NN bee , , , yellow JJ yellow jacket NN jacket , , , or CC or hornet NN hornet venom NN venom were VBD be treated VVN treat with IN with rush NN rush Hymenoptera NP venom NN venom immunotherapy NN immunotherapy . SENT . Diagnosis NN diagnosis and CC and selection NN selection of IN of patients NNS patient for IN for venom NN venom immunotherapy NN immunotherapy were VBD be carried VVN carry out IN out according VVG accord to TO to the DT the recommendations NNS recommendation of IN of the DT the European NP European Academy NP Academy of IN of Allergology NP and CC and Clinical JJ clinical Immunology NN immunology . SENT . We PP we used VVD use a DT a 4-day NN regimen NN regimen , , , and CC and the DT the incidence NN incidence and CC and nature NN nature of IN of systemic JJ systemic reactions NNS reaction ( ( ( SRs NP SRs ) ) ) were VBD be documented VVN document . SENT . Fifty CD fifty -two NN patients NNS patient were VBD be treated VVN treat with IN with honeybee NN honeybee venom NN venom , , , and CC and 49 CD @card@ were VBD be treated VVN treat with IN with yellow JJ yellow jacket NN jacket venom NN venom . SENT . Results NNS result : : : One CD One hundred CD hundred ( ( ( 99 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) patients NNS patient reached VVD reach the DT the maintenance NN maintenance dose NN dose . SENT . We PP we observed VVD observe 8 CD 8 injection-related JJ SRs NP SRs ( ( ( 0.47 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of all DT all injections NNS injection given VVN give ) ) ) in IN in 7 CD 7 ( ( ( 6.9 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) patients NNS patient . SENT . The DT the number NN number of IN of SRs NP SRs was VBD be higher JJR high in IN in patients NNS patient treated VVN treat with IN with bee NN bee venom NN venom extract NN extract ( ( ( 12 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) compared VVN compare with IN with in IN in patients NNS patient receiving VVG receive yellow JJ yellow jacket NN jacket venom NN venom extract NN extract ( ( ( 2 CD 2 % NN % ) ) ) . SENT . There EX There was VBD be no DT no significant JJ significant difference NN difference in IN in the DT the risk NN risk of IN of SRs NP SRs between IN between female JJ female and CC and male JJ male patients NNS patient . SENT . The DT the incidence NN incidence of IN of SRs NP SRs was VBD be considerably RB considerably lower JJR low than IN than the DT the average NN average of IN of 17.8 CD @card@ % NN % reported VVN report in IN in the DT the literature NN literature . SENT . Conclusion NN conclusion : : : With IN with a DT a rush NN rush immunotherapy NN immunotherapy regimen NN regimen over IN over a DT a time NN time period NN period of IN of 8 CD 8 years NNS year in IN in predominantly RB predominantly high-risk JJ high-risk patients NNS patient , , , the DT the incidence NN incidence of IN of SRs NP SRs was VBD be low JJ low , , , despite IN despite the DT the high JJ high number NN number of IN of patients NNS patient with IN with bee NN bee venom NN venom allergy NN allergy , , , who WP who are VBP be more RBR more likely JJ likely to TO to have VH have side NN side effects NNS effect . SENT . Epinephrine NN epinephrine as IN as rescue NN rescue medication NN medication was VBD be never RB never necessary JJ necessary , , , and CC and the DT the regimen NN regimen proved VVD prove to TO to be VB be safe JJ safe and CC and convenient JJ convenient for IN for both PDT both the DT the patients NNS patient and CC and the DT the medical JJ medical staff NN staff . SENT . American JJ American foulbrood NN ( ( ( AFB NP ) ) ) , , , a DT a severe JJ severe bacterial JJ bacterial disease NN disease of IN of honeybee NN honeybee brood NN brood , , , has VHZ have recently RB recently been VBN be found VVN find in IN in Uruguayan JJ Uruguayan apiaries NNS apiary . SENT . Detection NN detection of IN of the DT the causative JJ causative agent NN agent , , , Paenibacillus NP larvae NNS larva subspecies NN subspecies larvae NNS larva , , , is VBZ be a DT a very RB very important JJ important concern NN concern in IN in order NN order to TO to prevent VV prevent disease NN disease dissemination NN dissemination and CC and decrease NN decrease of IN of honey NN honey production NN production . SENT . Since IN since spores NNS swarm are VBP be the DT the infective JJ infective forms NNS form of IN of this DT this pathogen NN pathogen , , , in IN in the DT the present JJ present work NN work we PP we report VVP report the DT the use NN use of IN of polymerase NN polymerase chain NN chain reaction NN reaction ( ( ( PCR NP PCR ) ) ) to TO to detect VV detect P. NP P. l. JJ subsp. JJ larvae NNS larva spores NNS swarm from IN from in IN in vitro NN cultures NNS culture , , , larvae NNS larva with IN with clinical JJ clinical symptoms NNS symptom and CC and experimentally RB experimentally contaminated JJ contaminated honey NN honey . SENT . The DT the set NN set of IN of primers NNS primer was VBD be designed VVN design based VVN base on IN on the DT the published VVN publish P. NP P. l. JJ subsp. JJ larvae NNS larva 16S JJ rRNA NN gene NN gene . SENT . Using VVG use this DT this approach NN approach we PP we could MD could amplify VV amplify the DT the pathogen NN pathogen DNA NN DNA and CC and obtain VV obtain a DT a great JJ great sensitivity NN sensitivity and CC and a DT a notable JJ notable specificity NN specificity . SENT . Detection NN detection limit NN limit for IN for spore NN swarm suspension NN suspension was VBD be a DT a 10-2 CD @card@ dilution NN dilution of IN of template NN template DNA NN DNA obtained VVN obtain from IN from 32 CD @card@ spores NNS swarm , , , as RB as determined VVN determine by IN by plate NN plate count NN count . SENT . For IN for artificially RB artificially contaminated JJ contaminated honey NN honey , , , we PP we could MD could detect VV detect the DT the PCR NP PCR product NN product at IN at a DT a 10-3 CD @card@ dilution NN dilution of IN of template NN template DNA NN DNA obtained VVN obtain from IN from 170 CD @card@ spores NNS swarm . SENT . In IN in addition NN addition , , , when WRB when PCR NP PCR conditions NNS condition were VBD be set VVN set to TO to improve VV improve specificity NN specificity , , , we PP we were VBD be able JJ able to TO to amplify VV amplify P. NP P. l. JJ subsp. JJ larvae NNS larva DNA NN DNA selectively RB selectively and CC and no DT no cross-reactions NNS were VBD be observed VVN observe with IN with a DT a variety NN variety of IN of related JJ related bacterial JJ bacterial species NNS specie , , , including VVG include P. NP P. l. JJ subsp. JJ pulvifaciens NNS . SENT . Since IN since spore NN swarm detection NN detection is VBZ be very RB very important JJ important to TO to confirm VV confirm the DT the presence NN presence of IN of the DT the disease NN disease , , , this DT this method NN method provides VVZ provide a DT a reliable JJ reliable diagnosis NN diagnosis of IN of AFB NP from IN from infected JJ infected larvae NNS larva and CC and contaminated JJ contaminated honey NN honey in IN in a DT a few JJ few hours NNS hour . SENT . The DT the enzyme NN enzyme spectrum NN spectrum of IN of an DT an ectoparasitic JJ ectoparasitic mite NN mite of IN of the DT the honeybee NN honeybee , , , Varroa NP destructor NN destructor ( ( ( Anderson NP Anderson and CC and Trueman NP Trueman ) ) ) was VBD be studied VVN study using VVG use a DT a semi-quantitative JJ method NN method , , , especially RB especially designed VVN design for IN for complex JJ complex samples NNS sample which WDT which have VHP have not RB not been VBN be purified VVN purify . SENT . Exopeptidases NNS exopeptidase and CC and phosphatases NNS phosphatase are VBP be shown VVN show present RB present . SENT . A DT a chitinase NN and CC and enzymes NNS enzyme able JJ able to TO to transform VV transform beta JJ beta carbohydrates NNS carbohydrate are VBP be also RB also present JJ present with IN with a DT a large JJ large range NN range in IN in the DT the intensity NN intensity of IN of the DT the reaction NN reaction . SENT . The DT the role NN role of IN of the DT the chitinase NN can MD can be VB be related VVN relate to TO to the DT the supply NN supply of IN of nutritional JJ nutritional needs NNS need or/and VV the DT the piercing JJ piercing and CC and sucking JJ sucking behaviour NN behaviour of IN of the DT the adult NN adult parasite NN parasite . SENT . Chitinase JJ activity NN activity could MD could be VB be one CD one factor NN factor influencing VVG influence the DT the balance NN balance between IN between the DT the parasite NN parasite and CC and its PP$ its host NN host . SENT . In IN in the DT the mid-1930s NNS , , , Karl NP Karl von NP von Frisch NP Frisch proposed VVD propose the DT the equivalent NN equivalent of IN of an DT an odor-search NN hypothesis NN hypothesis for IN for honey NN honey bee NN bee recruitment NN recruitment to TO to food NN food sources NNS source . SENT . A DT a decade NN decade later RB later he PP he switched VVD switch to TO to the DT the equivalent NN equivalent of IN of a DT a `` `` `` dance NN dance language NN language '' '' '' hypothesis NN hypothesis ( ( ( though IN though he PP he apparently RB apparently did VVD do not RB not consider VV consider his PP$ his conclusions NNS conclusion as IN as hypotheses NNS hypothesis in IN in either DT either case NN case ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the later RBR later and CC and more RBR more exotic JJ exotic hypothesis NN hypothesis rapidly RB rapidly gained VVD gain acceptance NN acceptance , , , but CC but it PP it failed VVD fail its PP$ its first JJ first experimental JJ experimental tests NNS test in IN in the DT the mid-1960s NNS ; : ; searching VVG search recruits NNS recruit did VVD do not RB not behave VV behave as IN as von NP von Frisch NP Frisch indicated VVD indicate they PP they should MD should under IN under the DT the language NN language hypothesis NN hypothesis . SENT . His PP$ his earlier JJR early and CC and more RBR more conservative JJ conservative odor-search NN hypothesis NN hypothesis meshed VVD mesh better JJR good with IN with results NNS result obtained VVN obtain in IN in those DT those test NN test experiments NNS experiment . SENT . Language NN language advocates NNS advocate then RB then ignored VVD ignore basic JJ basic precepts NNS precept of IN of scientific JJ scientific process NN process , , , rejected VVD reject and/or NN ignored VVD ignore results NNS result not RB not in IN in accord NN accord with IN with their PP$ their favored JJ favored hypothesis NN hypothesis , , , and CC and instead RB instead repeatedly RB repeatedly sought VVN seek additional JJ additional supportive JJ supportive evidence NN evidence . SENT . While IN while so RB so doing VVG do , , , they PP they inadvertently RB inadvertently accumulated VVN accumulate yet RB yet more JJR more evidence NN evidence counter NN counter to TO to von NP von Frisch NP Frisch 's POS 's original JJ original intent NN intent . SENT . By IN by invoking VVG invoke ad FW ad hoc FW hoc modifications NNS modification and CC and qualifications NNS qualification , , , advocates NNS advocate weakened VVD weaken , , , rather RB rather than IN than strengthened VVN strengthen , , , the DT the hypothesis NN hypothesis they PP they continued VVD continue to TO to embrace VV embrace . SENT . That DT that strict JJ strict adherence NN adherence to TO to the DT the language NN language hypothesis NN hypothesis has VHZ have had VHN have an DT an unfortunate JJ unfortunate result NN result ; : ; the DT the exclusive JJ exclusive investment NN investment in IN in that DT that line NN line of IN of research NN research by IN by various JJ various governmental JJ governmental agencies NNS agency has VHZ have failed VVN fail to TO to provide VV provide practical JJ practical help NN help to TO to beekeepers NNS beekeeper or CC or growers NNS grower in IN in the DT the past JJ past half-century NN half-century . SENT . In IN in the DT the Cape NP Cape honey NN honey bee NN bee Apis NP mellifera NN capensis NN , , , workers NNS worker lay VVD lie female JJ female eggs NNS egg without IN without mating NN mating by IN by thelytokous JJ parthenogenesis NN parthenogenesis . SENT . As IN as a DT a result NN result , , , workers NNS worker are VBP be as RB as related VVN relate to TO to worker-laid VVN eggs NNS egg as IN as they PP they are VBP be to TO to queen-laid VVN eggs NNS egg and CC and therefore RB therefore worker NN worker policing VVG police is VBZ be expected VVN expect to TO to be VB be lower JJR low , , , or CC or even RB even absent JJ absent . SENT . This DT this was VBD be tested VVN test by IN by transferring VVG transfer worker-and CC queen-laid VVN eggs NNS egg into IN into three CD three queenright JJ A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN discriminator NN discriminator colonies NNS colony and CC and monitoring VVG monitor their PP$ their removal NN removal . SENT . Our PP$ our results NNS result show VVP show that DT that worker NN worker policing VVG police is VBZ be variable JJ variable in IN in A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN and CC and that IN that in IN in one CD one colony NN colony worker-laid VVD eggs NNS egg were VBD be not RB not removed VVN remove . SENT . This DT this is VBZ be the DT the first JJ first report NN report of IN of a DT a non-policing VVG queenright NN honey NN honey bee NN bee colony NN colony . SENT . DNA NP DNA microsatellite NN and CC and morphometric JJ analysis NN analysis suggests VVZ suggest that IN that the DT the racial JJ racial composition NN composition of IN of the DT the three CD three discriminator NN discriminator colonies NNS colony was VBD be different JJ different . SENT . The DT the variation NN variation in IN in policing VVG police rates NNS rate could MD could be VB be explained VVN explain by IN by differences NNS difference in IN in degrees NNS degree of IN of hybridisation NN hybridization between IN between A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN and CC and A. NP A. m. JJ scutellata NN , , , although IN although a DT a larger JJR large survey NN survey is VBZ be needed VVN need to TO to confirm VV confirm this DT this . SENT . Five CD Five microsatellite JJ loci NNS locus were VBD be used VVN use to TO to determine VV determine paternities NNS paternity in IN in six CD six Apis NP mellifera NN colonies NNS colony headed VVN head by IN by naturally RB naturally mated VVN mate queens NNS queen . SENT . The DT the last JJ last inseminating VVG inseminate males NNS male were VBD be identified VVN identify by IN by collecting VVG collect and CC and genotyping VVG the DT the mating NN mating sign NN sign left VVN leave in IN in the DT the genital JJ genital tract NN tract of IN of each DT each queen NN queen . SENT . Significant JJ significant differences NNS difference in IN in paternity NN paternity frequencies NNS frequency were VBD be observed VVN observe between IN between males NNS male , , , but CC but the DT the proportion NN proportion of IN of worker NN worker and CC and queen NN queen offspring NNS offspring sired VVN sire by IN by the DT the last JJ last inseminating VVG inseminate drone NN drone did VVD do not RB not differ VV differ significantly RB significantly from IN from those DT those of IN of other JJ other drones NNS drone . SENT . Each DT each male NN male kept VVD keep his PP$ his rank NN rank of IN of precedence NN precedence for IN for the DT the different JJ different cohorts NNS cohort , , , although IN although the DT the variance NN variance in IN in subfamily NN subfamily proportions NNS proportion decreased VVD decrease over IN over time NN time , , , most RBS most notably RB notably in IN in the DT the colony NN colony displaying VVG display the DT the lowest JJS low level NN level of IN of polyandry NN polyandry . SENT . These DT these results NNS result suggest VVP suggest that IN that , , , if IN if sperm NN sperm competition NN competition exists VVZ exist in IN in the DT the honeybee NN honeybee , , , it PP it does VVZ do not RB not significantly RB significantly increase VV increase the DT the fitness NN fitness of IN of the DT the last JJ last inseminating VVG inseminate drone NN drone . SENT . The DT the spermatozoa NNS spermatozoon of IN of the DT the different JJ different inseminating VVG inseminate drones NNS drone are VBP be not RB not totally RB totally mixed VVN mix before IN before they PP they reach VVP reach the DT the spermatheca NN spermatheca , , , in IN in particular JJ particular when WRB when only RB only few JJ few males NNS male mate NN mat_e with IN with the DT the queen NN queen . SENT . The DT the weak JJ weak difference NN difference in IN in the DT the subfamily NN subfamily proportions NNS proportion observed VVD observe between IN between queen NN queen and CC and worker NN worker samples NNS sample confirms VVZ confirm that IN that nepotistic JJ nepotic interactions NNS interaction are VBP be rare JJ rare . SENT . The DT the mushroom NN mushroom bodies NNS body ( ( ( MBs NP ) ) ) , , , a DT a paired VVN pair structure NN structure in IN in the DT the insect NN insect brain NN brain , , , play VVP play a DT a major JJ major role NN role in IN in storing VVG store and CC and retrieving VVG retrieve olfactory JJ olfactory memories NNS memory . SENT . We PP we tested VVD test whether IN whether olfactory JJ olfactory learning NN learning and CC and odor NN odour processing NN processing is VBZ be impaired VVN impair in IN in honeybees NNS honeybee in IN in which WDT which MB NP MB subunits NN subunit were VBD be partially RB partially ablated VVN ablate . SENT . Using VVG use hydroxyurea NN ( ( ( HU NP Hu ) ) ) to TO to selectively RB selectively kill VV kill proliferating VVG proliferate cells NNS cell , , , we PP we created VVD create honeybees NNS honeybee with IN with varying VVG vary degrees NNS degree of IN of MB NP MB lesions NNS lesion . SENT . Three-dimensional JJ three-dimensional reconstructions NNS reconstruction of IN of brains NNS brain were VBD be generated VVN generate to TO to analyze VV analyse the DT the drug-induced JJ drug-induce morphological JJ morphologic changes NNS change . SENT . These DT these reconstructions NNS reconstruction show VVP show that IN that , , , with IN with few JJ few exceptions NNS exception , , , only RB only the DT the MBs NP were VBD be affected VVN affect by IN by the DT the drug NN drug , , , while IN while other JJ other brain NN brain areas NNS area remained VVD remain morphometrically RB intact JJ intact . SENT . Typically RB typically , , , lesions NNS lesion affected VVD affect only RB only the DT the MB NP MB in IN in one CD one hemisphere NN hemisphere of IN of the DT the brain NN brain . SENT . To TO To preclude VV preclude HU NP Hu -induced JJ physiologic JJ deficits NNS deficit in IN in the DT the antennal JJ lobe NN lobe ( ( ( AL NP al ) ) ) affecting VVG affect olfactory JJ olfactory learning NN learning , , , we PP we measured VVD measured the DT the responses NNS response to TO to odors NNS odour in IN in the DT the AL NP al using VVG use an DT an in IN in vivo JJ vivo calcium NN calcium imaging NN imaging approach NN approach . SENT . The DT the response NN response patterns NNS pattern did VVD do not RB not differ VV differ between IN between the DT the AL NP al of IN of intact JJ intact versus CC versus ablated VVN ablate brain NN brain sides NNS side within IN within respective JJ respective specimens NNS specimen . SENT . We PP we , , , therefore RB therefore , , , carried VVD carry out IN out side-specific JJ classical JJ classical discriminative JJ discriminatory olfactory JJ olfactory conditioning NN conditioning of IN of the DT the proboscis NN proboscis extension NN extension reflex JJ reflex ( ( ( PER FW per ) ) ) with IN with control NN control bees NNS bee and CC and with IN with HU-treated VVN bees NNS bee with IN with or CC or without IN without MB NP MB ablations NNS ablation . SENT . All DT all experimental JJ experimental groups NNS group learned VVD learn equally RB equally to TO to discriminate JJ discriminate and CC and respond VV respond to TO to a DT a rewarded VVN reward ( ( ( CS+ NP ) ) ) but CC but not RB not to TO to an DT an unrewarded VVN unreward ( ( ( CS- NP ) ) ) conditioned VVN condition stimulus NN stimulus during IN during acquisition NN acquisition and CC and retention NN retention tests NNS test . SENT . Thus RB thus , , , our PP$ our results NNS result indicate VVP indicate that IN that partial JJ partial MB NP MB lesions NNS lesion do VVP do not RB not affect VV affect this DT this form NN form of IN of elemental JJ elemental olfactory JJ olfactory learning NN learning . SENT . The DT the effect NN effect of IN of an DT an ethanolic JJ extract NN extract of IN of propolis NN propolis , , , with IN with and CC and without IN without CAPE NN cape , , , and CC and some DT some of IN of its PP$ its components NNS component on IN on cyclooxygenase NN ( ( ( COX-1 LS and CC and COX-2 LS ) ) ) activity NN activity in IN in J774 NP macrophages NNS macrophage has VHZ have been VBN be investigated VVN investigate . SENT . COX-1 CD and CC and COX-2 CD activity NN activity , , , measaured VVN as IN as prostaglandin NN prostaglandin E2 NN ( ( ( PGE2 NP ) ) ) production NN production , , , were VBD be concentration NN concentration -dependently RB inhibited VVD inhibit by IN by propolis NN propolis ( ( ( 3X10-3-3X102 JJ mugml-1 LS ) ) ) with IN with an DT an IC50 NN of IN of 2.7 CD @card@ mugml-1 CD and CC and 4.8X10-2 CD mugml-1 CD , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . Among IN amongst the DT the compounds NNS compound tested VVD test pinocembrin NN and CC and caffeic JJ , , , ferulic JJ , , , cinnamic JJ cinnamic and CC and chlorogenic JJ acids NNS acid did VVD do not RB not affect VV affect the DT the activity NN activity of IN of COX NN cox isoforms NNS . SENT . Conversely RB conversely , , , CAPE NN cape ( ( ( 2.8X10-4-28 CD mugml NN -1 CD @card@ ; : ; 10-9-10-4 NP @card@ M NP M ) ) ) and CC and galangin NN ( ( ( 2.7X10-4-27 CD mugml-1 CD ; : ; 10-9-10-4 NP @card@ M NP M ) ) ) were VBD be effective JJ effective , , , the DT the last JJ last being NN being about IN about ten-twenty CD times NNS time less RBR less potent JJ potent . SENT . In IN in fact NN fact the DT the IC50 NN of IN of CAPE NN cape for IN for COX-1 CD and CC and COX-2 CD were VBD be 4.4X10-1 CD mugml-1 CD ( ( ( 1.5X10-6 CD M NP M ) ) ) and CC and 2X10-3 LS mugml-1 LS ( ( ( 6.3X10-9 CD M NP M ) ) ) , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . The DT the IC50 NN of IN of galangin NN were VBD be 3.7 CD @card@ mugml-1 CD ( ( ( 15X10-6 CD M NP M ) ) ) and CC and 3X10-2 CD mugml-1 CD ( ( ( 120X10-9 CD M NP M ) ) ) , , , for IN for COX-1 CD and CC and COX-2 CD respectively RB respectively . SENT . To TO To better RBR better investigate VV investigate the DT the role NN role of IN of CAPE NN cape , , , we PP we tested VVD test the DT the action NN action of IN of the DT the ethanolic JJ extract NN extract of IN of propolis NN propolis deprived VVN deprive of IN of CAPE NN cape , , , which WDT which resulted VVD result about IN about ten CD ten times NNS time less RBR less potent JJ potent than IN than the DT the extract NN extract with IN with CAPE NN cape in IN in the DT the inhibition NN inhibition of IN of both DT both COX-1 CD and CC and COX-2 CD , , , with IN with an DT an IC50 NN of IN of 30 CD @card@ mugml-1 CD and CC and 5.3X10-1 CD mugml-1 CD , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . Moreover RB moreover the DT the comparison NN comparison of IN of the DT the inhibition NN inhibition curves NNS curve showed VVD show a DT a significant JJ significant difference NN difference ( ( ( p NN p < SYM < 0.001 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . These DT these results NNS result suggest VVP suggest that IN that both DT both CAPE NN cape and CC and galangin NN contribute VVP contribute to TO to the DT the overall JJ overall activity NN activity of IN of propolis NN propolis , , , CAPE NN cape being VBG being more RBR more effective JJ effective . SENT . Habitat NN habitat disturbance NN disturbance , , , particularly RB particularly of IN of human JJ human origin NN origin , , , promotes VVZ promote the DT the invasion NN invasion of IN of exotic JJ exotic plants NNS plant , , , which WDT which in IN in turn NN turn might MD might foster VV foster the DT the invasion NN invasion of IN of alien JJ alien -interacting NN animals NNS animal . SENT . Here RB here we PP we assess VVP assess whether IN whether the DT the invasion NN invasion of IN of exotic JJ exotic plants NNS plant - : - mostly RB mostly mediated VVN mediate by IN by habitat NN habitat disturbance NN disturbance - : - facilitates VVZ facilitate the DT the invasion NN invasion of IN of exotic JJ exotic flower NN flower visitors NNS visitor in IN in temperate JJ temperate forests NNS forest of IN of the DT the southern JJ southern Andes NP Andes , , , Argentina NP Argentina . SENT . We PP we recorded VVD record visit NN visit frequencies NNS frequency and CC and the DT the identity NN identity of IN of visitors NNS visitor to TO to the DT the flowers NNS flower of IN of 15 CD @card@ native NN native and CC and 15 CD @card@ exotic JJ exotic plant NN plant species NNS specie occurring VVG occur in IN in different JJ different highly RB highly disturbed JJ disturbed and CC and less RBR less disturbed JJ disturbed habitats NNS habitat . SENT . We PP we identified VVD identify three CD three alien JJ alien flower NN flower visitors NNS visitor , , , the DT the hymenopterans NNS hymenopteran Apis NN mellifera NN , , , Bombus NP ruderatus NN , , , and CC and Vespula NP germanica NN . SENT . We PP we found VVD find significantly RB significantly more JJR more visitation NN visitation by IN by exotic JJ exotic insects NNS insect in IN in disturbed JJ disturbed habitats NNS habitat . SENT . This DT this pattern NN pattern was VBD be explained VVN explain , , , at IN at least JJS least in IN in part NN part , , , by IN by the DT the association NN association between IN between alien JJ alien flower NN flower visitors NNS visitor and CC and flowers NNS flower of IN of exotic JJ exotic plants NNS plant , , , which WDT which occurred VVD occur more JJR more frequently RB frequently in IN in disturbed JJ disturbed habitats NNS habitat . SENT . However RB however , , , this DT this general JJ general pattern NN pattern masked VVD mask different JJ different responses NNS response between IN between the DT the two CD two main JJ main alien JJ alien flower NN flower visitors NNS visitor . SENT . Apis NN mellifera NN exploited VVN exploit almost RB almost exclusively RB exclusively the DT the flowers NNS flower of IN of a DT a subset NN subset of IN of herbaceous JJ herbaceous exotic JJ exotic plants NNS plant that WDT that thrive VVP thrive under IN under disturbance NN disturbance , , , whereas IN whereas B. NP B. ruderatus NN visited VVD visit equally RB equally flowers NNS flower of IN of both DT both exotic JJ exotic and CC and native JJ native plants NNS plant in IN in both DT both disturbed JJ disturbed and CC and undisturbed JJ undisturbed habitats NNS habitat . SENT . We PP we did VVD do not RB not find VV find any DT any strong JJ strong evidence NN evidence that IN that flowers NNS flower of IN of exotic JJ exotic plants NNS plant were VBD be more JJR more generalist NN generalist than IN than those DT those of IN of native JJ native plants NNS plant , , , or CC or that DT that exotic JJ exotic flower NN flower visitors NNS visitor were VBD be more JJR more generalist NN generalist than IN than their PP$ their native JJ native counterparts NNS counterpart . SENT . Our PP$ our results NNS result suggest VVP suggest that DT that alien JJ alien plant NN plant species NNS specie could MD could facilitate VV facilitate the DT the invasion NN invasion of IN of at IN at least JJS least some DT some exotic JJ exotic flower NN flower visitors NNS visitor to TO to disturbed JJ disturbed habitats NNS habitat . SENT . Because IN because flowering JJ flowering plants NNS plant as RB as well RB well as IN as flower NN flower visitors NNS visitor benefit VVP benefit from IN from this DT this mutualism NN mutualism , , , this DT this association NN association may MD may enhance VV enhance , , , through IN through a DT a positive JJ positive feedback NN feedback , , , successful JJ successful establishment NN establishment of IN of both DT both exotic JJ exotic partners NNS partner . SENT . Free-flying NN free-fly honeybees NNS honeybee , , , Apis NP mellifera NP , , , learn VVP learn visual JJ visual stimuli NNS stimulus in IN in the DT the appetitive JJ context NN context of IN of food NN food search NN search . SENT . Visual JJ visual compound NN compound stimuli NNS stimulus are VBP be relevant JJ relevant in IN in nautre NN as IN as bees NNS bee learn VVP learn flower NN flower images NNS image that WDT that consist VVP consist of IN of many JJ many visual JJ visual elements NNS element . SENT . We PP we studied VVD study whether IN whether elemental JJ elemental associations NNS association between IN between each DT each visual JJ visual element NN element and CC and the DT the reinforcement NN reinforcement ( ( ( elemental JJ elemental approach NN approach ) ) ) are VBP be enough JJ enough to TO to explain VV explain the DT the solving VVG solve of IN of visual JJ visual discrimination NN discrimination problems NNS problem that WDT that raise VVP raise ambiguity NN ambiguity at IN at the DT the elemental JJ elemental level NN level . SENT . We PP we asked VVD ask whether IN whether bees NNS bee could MD could solve VV solve three CD three different JJ different visual JJ visual discriminations NNS discrimination : : : ( ( ( 1 LS 1 ) ) ) positive JJ positive patterning NN ( ( ( A- NP A- , , , B- NP B- , , , AB+ NP ) ) ) ; : ; ( ( ( 2 LS 2 ) ) ) negative JJ negative patterning NN ( ( ( A+ NP , , , B+ NP , , , AB- NP ) ) ) ; : ; and CC and ( ( ( 3 LS 3 ) ) ) biconditional NN biconditional discrimination NN discrimination ( ( ( AB+ NP , , , CD+ NP , , , AC- NP , , , BD- NP ) ) ) . SENT . In IN in experiments NNS experiment 1 CD 1 and CC and 2 CD 2 bees NNS bee had VHD have to TO to discriminate VV discriminate a DT a yellow-violet NN chequerboard NN chequerboard from IN from the DT the yellow JJ yellow or CC or the DT the violet NN violet squares NNS square alone RB alone . SENT . In IN in experiment NN experiment 3 CD 3 , , , four CD four different JJ different gratings NNS grating combining VVG combine one CD one colour NN colour ( ( ( yellow JJ yellow or CC or violet NN violet ) ) ) with IN with one CD one orientation NN orientation ( ( ( vertical JJ vertical or CC or horizontal JJ horizontal ) ) ) had VHN have to TO to be VB be discriminated VVN discriminate . SENT . In IN in all DT all three CD three problems NNS problem binary JJ binary compounds NNS compound were VBD be trained VVN train in IN in such PDT such a DT a way NN way that IN that each DT each element NN element appeared VVD appear equally RB equally often RB often as RB as rewarded VVN reward and CC and nonrewarded JJ . SENT . Bees NNS bee could MD could solve VV solve the DT the three CD three discrimination NN discrimination problems NNS problem . SENT . They PP they always RB always chose VVD choose the DT the reinforced VVN reinforce stimulus NN stimulus despite IN despite ambiguity NN ambiguity at IN at the DT the level NN level of IN of the DT the elements NNS element . SENT . For IN for solving VVG solve positive JJ positive patterning NN , , , elemental JJ elemental processing NN processing could MD could be VB be used VVN use . SENT . For IN for negative JJ negative patterning NN and CC and biconditional NN biconditional discrimination NN discrimination , , , nonelemental JJ processing NN processing strategies NNS strategy ( ( ( unique-cue NN or CC or configural JJ approach NN approach ) ) ) are VBP be necessary JJ necessary to TO to account VV account for IN for these DT these results NNS result . SENT . Although IN Although we PP we can MD can not RB not decide VV decide between IN between a DT a configural NN and CC and a DT a unique-cue NN interpretation NN interpretation , , , we PP we can MD can clearly RB clearly reject VV reject purely RB purely elemental JJ elemental processing NN processing in IN in these DT these cases NNS case . SENT . We PP we tested VVD test the DT the effects NNS effect of IN of larval JJ larval and CC and preforaging JJ rearing NN rearing environment NN environment on IN on the DT the foraging VVG forage behaviour NN behaviour and CC and sucrose NN sucrose response NN response thresholds NNS threshold of IN of honeybees NNS honeybee , , , Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. , , , derived VVN derive from IN from high JJ high and CC and low JJ low pollen-hoarding NN strains NNS strain . SENT . Bees NNS bee were VBD be reared VVN rear as IN as larvae NNS larva and CC and as IN as preforaging VVG adults NNS adult in IN in colonies NNS colony containing VVG contain high JJ high and CC and low JJ low pollen-hoarding NN strains NNS strain , , , then RB then cofostered VVN in IN in unrelated JJ unrelated common JJ common wild-type NN colonies NNS colony from IN from which WDT which to TO to forage VV forage . SENT . Genotype NN genotype , , , but CC but not RB not rearing VVG rear environment NN environment , , , had VHD have strong JJ strong effects NNS effect on IN on the DT the likelihood NN likelihood to TO to forage VV forage for IN for pollen NN pollen or CC or nectar NN nectar , , , the DT the size NN size of IN of pollen NN pollen or CC or nectar NN nectar load NN load , , , and CC and the DT the concentration NN concentration of IN of sugar NN sugar in IN in the DT the nectar NN nectar they PP they collected VVD collect . SENT . Genotype NN genotype and CC and rearing NN rearing environment NN environment affected VVD affect adult JJ adult wet JJ wet weights NNS weight and CC and sucrose NN sucrose concentration NN concentration response NN response threshold NN threshold , , , as RB as measured VVN measured with IN with the DT the proboscis NN proboscis extension NN extension response NN response assay NN assay . SENT . Bees NNS bee from IN from the DT the high JJ high pollen-hoarding NN strain NN strain were VBD be more RBR more sensitive JJ sensitive to TO to conditions NNS condition of IN of the DT the rearing NN rearing environment NN environment than IN than were VBD be bees NNS bee of IN of the DT the low JJ low strain NN strain . SENT . High- NN high- and CC and low-strain NN bees NNS bee produced VVD produce different JJ different colony NN colony environments NNS environment that WDT that affected VVD affect developmental JJ developmental , , , behavioural JJ and CC and physical JJ physical traits NNS trait of IN of the DT the individuals NNS individual they PP they reared VVN rear . SENT . This DT this demonstrates VVZ demonstrate how WRB how genotype NN genotype and CC and colony NN colony environment NN environment correlate NN correlate and CC and affect VV affect phenotype NN phenotype . SENT . In IN in order NN order to TO to evaluate VV evaluate the DT the pollination NN pollination potential NN potential of IN of Africanized VVN Africanize honeybees NNS honeybee , , , 10 CD @card@ hives NNS hive were VBD be placed VVN place between IN between rows NNS row of IN of a DT a coffee NN coffee ( ( ( Coffea NP arabica NP Arabica L. NP L. ) ) ) plantation NN plantation at IN at `` `` `` El NP El Laurel NP Laurel '' '' '' Experimental JJ experimental Station NP Station , , , of IN of the DT the Central NP Central University NP University of IN of Venezuela NP Venezuela , , , Miranda NP Miranda State NP State , , , Venezuela NP Venezuela . SENT . Secondary JJ secondary branches NNS branch were VBD be selected VVN select randomly RB randomly from IN from 60 CD @card@ adult NN adult plants NNS plant . SENT . Yields NNS Yield from IN from uncovered JJ uncovered ( ( ( T1 NP ) ) ) and CC and mesh VV mesh covered VVN cover ( ( ( T2 NP ) ) ) branches NNS branch , , , as RB as well RB well as RB as from IN from uncovered JJ uncovered branches NNS branch located VVN locate 1 CD 1 km NN away RB away from IN from the DT the hives NNS hive ( ( ( T3 NP ) ) ) were VBD be compared VVN compare . SENT . Number NN number of IN of flowers NNS flower blooming VVG bloom per IN per branch NN branch , , , mature JJ mature grains NNS grain per IN per branch NN branch and CC and weight NN weight of IN of the DT the wet/dry JJ grains NNS grain harvested VVN harvest were VBD be recorded VVN record . SENT . The DT the numbers NNS number of IN of mature JJ mature grains NNS grain relative JJ relative to TO to flowers NNS flower showed VVD show differences NNS difference ( ( ( p NN p < SYM < 0.05 CD @card@ ) ) ) with IN with percentages NNS percentage of IN of 91.6 CD @card@ ( ( ( T1 NP ) ) ) , , , 82.6 CD @card@ ( ( ( T2 NP ) ) ) and CC and 86.9 CD @card@ ( ( ( T3 NP ) ) ) . SENT . Differences NNS difference ( ( ( p NN p < SYM < 0.05 CD @card@ ) ) ) were VBD be found VVN find in IN in wet JJ wet weight NN weight ( ( ( g/grain NN ) ) ) with IN with values NNS value of IN of 2.05 CD @card@ ( ( ( T1 NP ) ) ) , , , 1.71 CD @card@ ( ( ( T2 NP ) ) ) and CC and 1.83 CD @card@ ( ( ( T3 NP ) ) ) . SENT . Highly RB highly significant JJ significant differences NNS difference ( ( ( p NN p < SYM < 0.01 CD @card@ ) ) ) were VBD be found VVN find for IN for dry JJ dry weight NN weight ( ( ( g/grain NN ) ) ) with IN with values NNS value of IN of 0.45 CD @card@ ( ( ( T1 NP ) ) ) , , , 0.37 CD @card@ ( ( ( T2 NP ) ) ) and CC and 0.41 CD @card@ ( ( ( T3 NP ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the results NNS result suggest VVP suggest that IN that the DT the use NN use of IN of honeybees NNS honeybee as IN as coffee NN coffee plant NN plant pollinators NNS pollinator increases VVZ increase the DT the percentage NN percentage of IN of mature JJ mature grains/branches NNS ; : ; thus RB thus increasing VVG increase yields NNS yield . SENT . The DT the longevity NN longevity of IN of Africanized VVN Africanize honeybee NN honeybee workers NNS worker ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. ) ) ) in IN in laboratory NN laboratory conditions NNS condition was VBD be evaluated VVN evaluate . SENT . Bees NNS bee from IN from 12 CD @card@ colonies NNS colony were VBD be placed VVN place into IN into wooden JJ wooden boxes NNS box by IN by groups NNS group of IN of 10 CD @card@ to TO to 50 CD @card@ individuals NNS individual , , , and CC and maintained VVD maintain in IN in a DT a room NN room under IN under controlled VVN control environmental JJ environmental conditions NNS condition . SENT . The DT the workers NNS worker received VVD receive candy NN candy and CC and water NN water which WDT which was VBD be renovated VVN renovate daily RB daily . SENT . A DT a significant JJ significant interaction NN interaction between IN between group NN group size NN size and CC and workers NNS worker source NN source was VBD be detected VVN detect . SENT . The DT the mean JJ mean longevity NN longevity values NNS value recorded VVN record for IN for numerically RB numerically distinct JJ distinct groups NNS group from IN from the DT the same JJ same colony NN colony origin NN origin varied VVN vary from IN from colony NN colony to TO to colony NN colony ( ( ( genetic JJ genetic effect NN effect ) ) ) . SENT . No DT no significant JJ significant difference NN difference of IN of longevity NN longevity among IN amongst groups NNS group of IN of 20 CD @card@ , , , 30 CD @card@ , , , 40 CD @card@ and CC and 50 CD @card@ individuals NNS individual was VBD be detected VVN detect . SENT . The DT the worst JJS bad group NN group for IN for experiments NNS experiment on IN on honeybee NN honeybee longevity NN longevity in IN in laboratory NN laboratory , , , according VVG accord to TO to the DT the method NN method used VVN use in IN in this DT this research NN research and CC and considering VVG considering the DT the time NN time wasted VVN waste to TO to mark VV mark the DT the worker NN worker bees NNS bee and CC and to TO to prepare VV prepare the DT the groups NNS group , , , was VBD be that RB that formed VVN form by IN by 10 CD @card@ bees NNS bee . SENT . Forty-five NN forty-five unmanaged JJ unmanaged honeybee NN honeybee colonies NNS colony from IN from the DT the south-east JJ of IN of the DT the Iberian NP Iberian Peninsula NP Peninsula ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN iberica NN ) ) ) were VBD be selected VVN select for IN for analysing VVG analyse their PP$ their genetic JJ genetic structure NN structure using VVG use eight CD eight microsatellite NN loci NNS locus . SENT . These DT these colonies NNS colony were VBD be not RB not subjected VVN subject to TO to management NN management for IN for queen NN queen replacement NN replacement , , , rearing NN rearing or CC or migratory JJ migratory movements NNS movement and CC and previous JJ previous studies NNS study showed VVD show that IN that they PP they had VHD have mitochondrial JJ mitochondrial DNA NP DNA ( ( ( mtDNA NP ) ) ) of IN of African JJ African origin NN origin . SENT . Six CD Six of IN of the DT the microsatellite JJ loci NNS locus show VVP show intermediate JJ intermediate levels NNS level of IN of polymorphism NN polymorphism with IN with a DT a total JJ total number NN number of IN of alleles NNS allele detected VVN detect per IN per locus NN locus ranging VVG range from IN from 4 CD 4 to TO to 10 CD @card@ . SENT . Microsatellite JJ data NNS datum relate VVP relate these DT these Iberian NP Iberian populations NNS population to TO to the DT the African JJ African A. NP A. m. NN intermissa NN , , , although IN although the DT the presence NN presence of IN of some DT some alleles NNS allele and CC and the DT the observed JJ observed heterozygosity NN are VBP be characteristic JJ characteristic of IN of the DT the European JJ European A. NP A. m. NN mellifera NN , , , thus RB thus corroborating VVG corroborate the DT the postulated VVN postulate hybrid JJ hybrid origin NN origin of IN of A. NP A. m. JJ iberica NN . SENT . The DT the results NNS result suggest VVP suggest that IN that no DT no recent JJ recent introgression NN introgression from IN from Africa NP Africa has VHZ have happened VVN happen and CC and that IN that the DT the populations NNS population of IN of A. NP A. m. JJ iberica NNS are VBP be differentiated VVN differentiate in IN in many JJ many demes NNS deme . SENT . We PP we reported VVD report on IN on the DT the use NN use of IN of experimental JJ experimental procedures NNS procedure dealing VVG deal with IN with these DT these behavioural JJ skills NNS skill in IN in the DT the assessment NN assessment of IN of pesticide NN pesticide effects NNS effect . SENT . The DT the relevance NN relevance of IN of the DT the following VVG follow methods NNS method are VBP be discussed VVN discuss : : : ( ( ( 1 LS 1 ) ) ) use VVP use of IN of automatic JJ automatic activity NN activity counters NNS counter set VVN set at IN at the DT the hive NN hive entrance NN entrance to TO to establish VV establish the DT the balance NN balance between IN between outgoing JJ outgoing and CC and incoming JJ incoming worker NN worker bees NNS bee ; : ; ( ( ( 2 LS 2 ) ) ) observation NN observation of IN of the DT the homing NN homing flights NNS flight of IN of bees NNS bee ; : ; ( ( ( 3 LS 3 ) ) ) the DT the analysis NN analysis of IN of the DT the information NN information encoded VVN encode in IN in the DT the dances NNS dance of IN of returning VVG return foragers NNS forager ; : ; and CC and ( ( ( 4 LS 4 ) ) ) recording VVG recording of IN of the DT the conditioned VVN condition proboscis NN proboscis extension NN extension response NN response on IN on restrained JJ restrained bees NNS bee to TO to evaluate VV evaluate individual JJ individual learning VVG learn performances NNS performance involved VVN involve in IN in foraging VVG forage behaviour NN behaviour . SENT . These DT these behavioural JJ assays NNS assay could MD could be VB be developed VVN develop for IN for sublethal JJ toxicity NN toxicity assessment NN assessment . SENT . However RB however , , , careful JJ careful validation NN validation of IN of the DT the tests NNS test is VBZ be needed VVN need before IN before being VBG being used VVN use in IN in a DT a routine JJ routine evaluation NN evaluation procedure NN procedure . SENT . At IN at a DT a minimum NN minimum , , , they PP they are VBP be valuable JJ valuable tools NNS tool to TO to understand VV understand the DT the mechanisms NNS mechanism underlying VVG underlie insecticide NN insecticide toxicity NN toxicity . SENT . This DT this meeting NN meeting contains VVZ contain 21 CD @card@ abstracts NNS abstract written VVN write in IN in Japanese JJ Japanese . SENT . The DT the topics NNS topic covered VVN cover include VVP include chironomids NNS , , , Tsutsugamushi NP disease NN disease , , , Lyme NP Lyme disease NN disease , , , benthic JJ benthic macroinvertebrates NNS , , , Chagas NP ' POS ' disease NN disease , , , blackflies NNS blackfly , , , and CC and human JJ human louse NN louse . SENT . The DT the case NN case of IN of a DT a host-parasite NN relationship NN relationship may MD may provide VV provide a DT a good JJ good model NN model to TO to evaluate VV evaluate the DT the costs NNS cost and CC and benefits NNS benefit of IN of some DT some behaviors NNS behaviour , , , an DT an area NN area in IN in which WDT which field NN field data NNS datum a DT a currently RB currently lacking JJ lacking . SENT . European NP European ( ( ( EHB NP ) ) ) and CC and Africanized VVN Africanize ( ( ( AHB NP ) ) ) honey NN honey bees NNS bee are VBP be two CD two Apis NP mellifera NN subspecies NN subspecies that IN that coexist VV coexist in IN in Mexico NP Mexico , , , the DT the former JJ former highly RB highly compatible JJ compatible with IN with Varroa NP destructor NN destructor , , , the DT the latter NN latter less RBR less compatible JJ compatible . SENT . Here RB here we PP we examine VVP examine two CD two mechanisms NNS mechanism that WDT that could MD could explain VV explain the DT the low JJ low compatibility NN compatibility between IN between AHB NP and CC and V. NP V. destructor NN destructor in IN in Mexico NP Mexico : : : ( ( ( 1 LS 1 ) ) ) grooming VVG groom behavior NN behaviour appeared VVD appear significantly RB significantly more RBR more intensive JJ intensive in IN in AHB NP colonies NNS colony , , , but CC but was VBD be nevertheless RB nevertheless ineffective JJ ineffective ; : ; ( ( ( 2 LS 2 ) ) ) EHB NP removed VVD remove 8.03 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of the DT the infested VVN infest brood NN brood , , , while IN while AHB NP removed VVD remove 32.46 CD @card@ % NN % , , , especially RB especially between IN between 5 CD 5 and CC and 7 CD 7 days NNS day post-capping VVG . SENT . Though IN though the DT the cost NN cost of IN of removing VVG remove infested VVN infest brood NN brood was VBD be not RB not different JJ different between IN between subspecies NN subspecies , , , the DT the result NN result , , , in IN in terms NNS term of IN of the DT the amount NN amount of IN of removed VVN remove infested VVN infest brood NN brood , , , was VBD be significantly RB significantly higher JJR high for IN for AHB NP . SENT . For IN for both DT both bees NNS bee , , , there EX there is VBZ be thus RB thus a DT a real JJ real cost NN cost , , , since IN since removing VVG remove a DT a pupa NN pupa results NNS result in IN in a DT a lower JJR low number NN number of IN of adult NN adult bees NNS bee . SENT . We PP we discuss VVP discuss the DT the possibility NN possibility that IN that the DT the removal NN removal of IN of infested VVN infest brood NN brood corresponds VVZ correspond with IN with a DT a threshold NN threshold above IN above which WDT which the DT the cost NN cost of IN of removal NN removal becomes VVZ become greater JJR great than IN than the DT the benefit NN benefit . SENT . The DT the insecticidal JJ insecticidal properties NNS property of IN of biotin-binding JJ proteins NNS protein ( ( ( BBPs NP ) ) ) have VHP have recently RB recently been VBN be exploited VVN exploit in IN in transgenic JJ plants NNS plant . SENT . As IN as BBPs NP have VHP have a DT a broad JJ broad spectrum NN spectrum of IN of insect NN insect toxicity NN toxicity , , , their PP$ their potential JJ potential impacts NNS impact on IN on non-target NP non-target insects NNS insect such JJ such as IN as honey NN honey bees NNS bee need VVP need to TO to be VB be assessed VVN assess . SENT . In IN in this DT this study NN study , , , the DT the effects NNS effect of IN of feeding VVG feed a DT a purified VVN purify BBP NP , , , avidin NN avidin , , , to TO to honey NN honey bee NN bee larvae NNS larva and CC and adults NNS adult were VBD be determined VVN determine . SENT . A DT a realistic JJ realistic larval JJ larval dosing VVG dose regime NN regime was VBD be developed VVN develop by IN by estimating VVG estimate the DT the pollen NN pollen content NN content of IN of brood NN brood food NN food in IN in the DT the field NN field and CC and adding VVG add avidin NN avidin to TO to artificial JJ artificial diet NN diet at IN at rates NNS rate that IN that simulated JJ simulated the DT the presence NN presence of IN of avidin-expressing VVG transgenic JJ pollen NN pollen in IN in brood NN brood food NN food . SENT . Larval JJ larval survival NN survival and CC and development NN development were VBD be unaffected JJ unaffected by IN by avidin NN avidin in IN in assays NNS assay which WDT which simulated JJ simulated larvae NNS larva receiving VVG receive pollen NN pollen expressing VVG express 0 CD 0 , , , 4 CD 4 or CC or 40 CD @card@ muM NN mum avidin NN avidin at IN at concentrations NNS concentration of IN of 164 CD @card@ mug NN mug pollen NN pollen per IN per mg NN mg food NN food for IN for the DT the first JJ first 2 CD 2 days NNS day and CC and 880 CD @card@ mug NN mug pollen NN pollen per IN per mg NN mg food NN food thereafter RB thereafter . SENT . Food NN food consumption NN consumption and CC and survival NN survival of IN of adult NN adult bees NNS bee were VBD be also RB also unaffected JJ unaffected by IN by avidin NN avidin added VVD add to TO to pollen NN pollen -candy NN at IN at levels NNS level corresponding JJ corresponding to TO to pollen NN pollen expression NN expression of IN of 0 CD 0 , , , 6.7 CD @card@ or CC or 20 CD @card@ muM NN mum avidin NN avidin . SENT . The DT the honeybee NN honeybee dance NN dance language NN language , , , in IN in which WDT which foragers NNS forager perform VVP perform dances NNS dance containing VVG contain information NN information about IN about the DT the distance NN distance and CC and direction NN direction to TO to food NN food sources NNS source , , , is VBZ be the DT the quintessential JJ quintessential example NN example of IN of symbolic JJ symbolic communication NN communication in IN in non-primates NNS . SENT . The DT the dance NN dance language NN language has VHZ have been VBN be the DT the subject NN subject of IN of controversy NN controversy , , , and CC and of IN of extensive JJ extensive research NN research into IN into the DT the mechanisms NNS mechanism of IN of acquiring VVG acquire , , , decoding VVG decode and CC and evaluating VVG evaluate the DT the information NN information in IN in the DT the dance NN dance . SENT . The DT the dance NN dance language NN language has VHZ have been VBN be hypothesized VVN hypothesize , , , but CC but not RB not shown VVN show , , , to TO to increase VV increase colony NN colony food NN food collection NN collection . SENT . Here RB here we PP we show VVP show that IN that colonies NNS colony with IN with disoriented VVN disorientate dances NNS dance ( ( ( lacking VVG lack direction NN direction information NN information ) ) ) recruit VV recruit less RBR less effectively RB effectively to TO to syrup NN syrup feeders NNS feeder than IN than do VVP do colonies NNS colony with IN with oriented JJ oriented dances NNS dance . SENT . For IN for colonies NNS colony foraging VVG forage at IN at natural JJ natural sources NNS source , , , the DT the direction NN direction information NN information sometimes RB sometimes increases VVZ increase food NN food collected VVN collect , , , but CC but at IN at other JJ other times NNS time it PP it makes VVZ make no DT no difference NN difference . SENT . The DT the food-location NN information NN information in IN in the DT the dance NN dance is VBZ be presumably RB presumably important JJ important when WRB when food NN food sources NNS source are VBP be hard JJ hard to TO to find VV find , , , variable JJ variable in IN in richness NN richness and CC and ephemeral NN ephemeral . SENT . Recruitment NN recruitment based VVN base simply RB simply on IN on arousal NN arousal of IN of foragers NNS forager and CC and communication NN communication of IN of floral JJ floral odour NN odour , , , as RB as occurs VVZ occur in IN in honeybees NNS honeybee , , , bumble VVP bumble bees NNS bee and CC and some DT some stingless JJ stingless bees NNS bee , , , can MD can be VB be equally RB equally effective JJ effective under IN under other JJ other circumstances NNS circumstance . SENT . Clarifying VVG clarify the DT the condition-dependent JJ payoffs NNS payoff of IN of the DT the dance NN dance language NN language provides VVZ provide new JJ new insight NN insight into IN into its PP$ its function NN function in IN in honeybee NN honeybee ecology NN ecology . SENT . In IN in honeybees NNS honeybee , , , Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. , , , the DT the proboscis NN proboscis extension NN extension reflex JJ reflex ( ( ( PER FW per ) ) ) can MD can be VB be conditioned VVN condition by IN by associating VVG associate an DT an odor NN odour stimulus NN stimulus ( ( ( CS NP CS ) ) ) with IN with a DT a sucrose NN sucrose reward NN reward ( ( ( US PP us ) ) ) . SENT . As IN as the DT the neural JJ neural structures NNS structure involved VVN involve in IN in the DT the detection NN detection and CC and integration NN integration of IN of CS NP CS and CC and US NP US are VBP be bilaterally RB bilaterally symmetrical JJ symmetrical in IN in the DT the bee NN bee brain NN brain , , , we PP we ask VVP ask what WP what respective JJ respective role NN role each DT each brain NN brain side NN side plays VVZ play in IN in the DT the conditioning NN conditioning process NN process . SENT . More RBR more specifically RB specifically , , , the DT the US NP US normally RB normally used VVD use in IN in conditioning NN conditioning experiments NNS experiment is VBZ be the DT the compound JJ compound stimulation NN stimulation of IN of the DT the antennae NNS antenna ( ( ( which WDT which triggers VVZ trigger the DT the PER FW per ) ) ) and CC and of IN of the DT the proboscis NN proboscis ( ( ( where WRB where bees NNS bee lick VV lick the DT the sucrose NN sucrose solution NN solution ) ) ) . SENT . Anatomically RB anatomically , , , the DT the brain NN brain receives VVZ receive unilateral JJ unilateral US NP US input NN input through IN through each DT each antenna NN antenna , , , but CC but bilateral JJ bilateral input NN input from IN from the DT the proboscis NN proboscis . SENT . By IN by controlling VVG control each DT each US NP US component NN component , , , we PP we show VVP show that IN that an DT an antenna-US NP produces VVZ produce unilateral JJ unilateral sensitization NN sensitization , , , whereas IN whereas a DT a proboscis-US NP or CC or a DT a compound-US NP induces VVZ induce bilateral JJ bilateral sensitization NN sensitization . SENT . Bees NNS bee can MD can learn VV learn a DT a unilateral JJ unilateral odor NN odour CS NP CS with IN with all DT all three CD three USs NN , , , but CC but when WRB when a DT a proboscis-US NP is VBZ be used VVN use , , , new JJ new learning NN learning is VBZ be inhibited VVD inhibit on IN on the DT the contralateral JJ side NN side , , , owing VVG owe to TO to a DT a possible JJ possible US-preexposure NN effect NN effect . SENT . Furthermore RB furthermore , , , we PP we show VVP show that IN that the DT the antenna-US NP induces VVZ induce both DT both unilateral JJ unilateral and CC and bilateral JJ bilateral reinforcement NN reinforcement processes NNS process , , , whereas IN whereas the DT the proboscis-US NP produces VVZ produce only RB only bilateral JJ bilateral effects NNS effect . SENT . Based VVN base on IN on these DT these data NNS datum , , , we PP we propose VVP propose a DT a functional JJ functional model NN model of IN of the DT the role NN role of IN of each DT each brain NN brain side NN side in IN in processing VVG process lateralized JJ CSs NP and CC and USs NP in IN in olfactory JJ olfactory learning NN learning in IN in honeybees NNS honeybee . SENT . Respiration NN respiration rates NNS rate in IN in queen-laid VVN and CC and worker-laid VVN eggs NNS egg of IN of the DT the honey NN honey bee NN bee , , , Apis NP mellifera NP , , , were VBD be determined VVN determine for IN for the DT the 3 CD 3 days NNS day of IN of embryonic JJ embryonic development NN development . SENT . Respiration NN respiration was VBD be quantified VVN quantify by IN by measuring VVG measure the DT the amount NN amount of IN of CO2 NN produced VVN produce during IN during 13 CD @card@ h NN h of IN of artificial JJ artificial incubation NN incubation at IN at four CD four temperature NN temperature treatments NNS treatment : : : 28degreeC NP , , , 31degreeC NP , , , 34degreeC NP , , , 36degreeC NP ( ( ( +- NN 0.5degreeC NN ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the mean JJ mean respiration NN respiration rates NNS rate for IN for fertilized VVN fertilize and CC and unfertilized JJ eggs NNS egg from IN from queens NNS queen were VBD be 140.3 CD @card@ +- NN 4.0 CD @card@ and CC and 141.2 CD @card@ +- NN 12.2 CD @card@ nl NN CO2/h/egg NP , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . The DT the mean JJ mean respiration NN respiration rate NN rate for IN for unfertilized JJ eggs NNS egg from IN from laying VVG lay workers NNS worker was VBD be 125.1 CD @card@ +- NN 6.3 CD @card@ nl NN CO2/h/egg NP . SENT . Mortality NN mortality results NNS result , , , as RB as indicated VVN indicate by IN by pre-emergence NN embryos NNS embryo , , , showed VVD show that IN that 75 CD @card@ % NN % developed VVN develop at IN at 34degreeC NP compared VVN compare to TO to 37.5 CD @card@ % NN % at IN at 36degreeC NP . SENT . Low JJ low temperatures NNS temperature of IN of 28degreeC NP and CC and 31degreeC NP had VHD have 12.5 CD @card@ % NN % and CC and 50 CD @card@ % NN % embryos NNS embryo developing VVG develop to TO to pre JJ -emergence NN stage NN stage , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . Respiration NN respiration results NNS result showed VVD show significant JJ significant differences NNS difference ( ( ( P NN P = SYM = 0.05 CD @card@ ) ) ) between IN between the DT the different JJ different days NNS day of IN of incubation NN incubation and CC and temperature NN temperature treatments NNS treatment , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . No DT no significant JJ significant difference NN difference was VBD be observed VVN observe between IN between the DT the fertilized VVN fertilize eggs NNS egg and CC and unfertilized JJ eggs NNS egg from IN from queens NNS queen at IN at the DT the same JJ same temperature NN temperature treatment NN treatment . SENT . The DT the comparison NN comparison of IN of unfertilized JJ eggs NNS egg from IN from queens NNS queen and CC and those DT those from IN from laying VVG lay workers NNS worker also RB also showed VVD show no DT no significant JJ significant difference NN difference . SENT . When WRB when CO2 JJ output NN output on IN on all PDT all the DT the days NNS day and CC and temperature NN temperature treatments NNS treatment were VBD be compared VVN compare , , , a DT a significant JJ significant regression NN regression ( ( ( R2 JJ = SYM = 0.645 CD @card@ ) ) ) was VBD be obtained VVN obtain ( ( ( P NN P = SYM = 0.05 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . Mechanical JJ mechanical stresses NNS stress by IN by a DT a narrow JJ narrow glass NN glass capillary NN capillary were VBD be applied VVN apply to TO to unfertilized JJ eggs NNS egg of IN of honeybees NNS honeybee to TO to determine VV determine whether IN whether the DT the removal NN removal of IN of meiotic JJ meiotic blocks NNS block of IN of the DT the eggs NNS egg could MD could be VB be caused VVN cause by IN by simple JJ simple mechanical JJ mechanical stimuli NNS stimulus . SENT . The DT the treated VVN treat eggs NNS egg developed VVN develop into IN into the DT the anaphase NN anaphase of IN of the DT the first JJ first meiotic JJ meiotic division NN division at IN at 15 CD @card@ min NN min after IN after treatment NN treatment , , , whereas IN whereas the DT the untreated JJ untreated eggs NNS egg remained VVD remain arrested VVN arrest at IN at the DT the metaphase NN metaphase of IN of the DT the first JJ first meiotic JJ meiotic division NN division . SENT . The DT the results NNS result of IN of histological JJ histological examination NN examination of IN of the DT the common JJ common oviduct NN oviduct showed VVD show that IN that its PP$ its inner JJ inner widths NNS width were VBD be sufficiently RB sufficiently narrow JJ narrow to TO to cause VV cause the DT the distortion NN distortion of IN of eggs NNS egg passing VVG pass through IN through it PP it . SENT . The DT the distorted JJ distorted eggs NNS egg could MD could be VB be fertilized VVN fertilize and CC and develop VV develop into IN into diploid JJ diploid embryos NNS embryo if IN if they PP they were VBD be exposed VVN expose to TO to the DT the semen NN semen immediately RB immediately ( ( ( within IN within 30 CD @card@ sec NN sec ) ) ) after IN after egg NN egg distortion NN distortion . SENT . However RB however , , , this DT this would MD would not RB not happen VV happen if IN if the DT the distorted JJ distorted eggs NNS egg were VBD be exposed VVN expose to TO to semen NN semen later RB later ( ( ( 30 CD @card@ min NN min ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the eggs NNS egg exposed VVN expose to TO to the DT the semen NN semen but CC but not RB not given VVN give mechanical JJ mechanical stimuli NNS stimulus could MD could initiate VV initiate the DT the embryonic JJ embryonic development NN development with IN with diploid JJ diploid chromosomes NNS chromosome . SENT . The DT the interval NN interval between IN between mechanical JJ mechanical distortion NN distortion and CC and sperm NN sperm acceptance NN acceptance by IN by eggs NNS egg in IN in vitro NN is VBZ be compatible JJ compatible with IN with that DT that of IN of natural JJ natural oviposition NN oviposition of IN of fertilized VVN fertilize eggs NNS egg by IN by honeybee NN honeybee queens NNS queen . SENT . These DT these results NNS result suggest VVP suggest that DT that egg NN egg activation NN activation by IN by mechanical JJ mechanical stresses NNS stress in IN in the DT the common JJ common oviduct NN oviduct is VBZ be valid JJ valid for IN for the DT the natural JJ natural oviposition NN oviposition in IN in honeybees NNS honeybee . SENT . We PP we sequenced VVD the DT the mitochondrial JJ mitochondrial cytochrome NN cytochrome oxidase NN oxidase 1 CD 1 ( ( ( CO1 NP ) ) ) gene NN gene of IN of three CD three honeybee NN honeybee species NNS specie of IN of Borneo NP Borneo , , , Apis NP cerana NP , , , A. NP A. koschevnikovi NP and CC and A. NP A. dorsata NN , , , and CC and carried VVD carry out IN out phylogenetic JJ phyletic analyses NNS analysis considering VVG considering geographic JJ geographical genetic JJ genetic variation NN variation . SENT . We PP we also RB also compared VVD compare the DT the sequence NN sequence divergence-geographic JJ distance NN distance relationships NNS relationship among IN amongst the DT the three CD three species NNS specie . SENT . Estimated VVN estimate genetic JJ genetic differentiation NN differentiation was VBD be an DT an order NN order of IN of magnitude NN magnitude larger JJR large in IN in A. NP A. koschevnikovi NNS than IN than in IN in A. NP A. cerana NP and CC and A. NP A. dorsata NN . SENT . Migratory JJ migratory nesting VVG nest behavior NN behaviour and CC and cold JJ cold tolerance NN tolerance of IN of each DT each honeybee NN honeybee , , , and CC and the DT the paleoclimate NN of IN of the DT the Southeast JJ southeast Asian JJ Asian tropics NNS tropic , , , are VBP be discussed VVN discuss as IN as factors NNS factor that WDT that produced VVD produce these DT these characteristics NNS characteristic for IN for mitochondrial JJ mitochondrial genetic JJ genetic markers NNS marker , , , and CC and conservation NN conservation priorities NNS priority are VBP be recommended VVN recommend . SENT . Pharmacological JJ pharmacological substances NNS substance such JJ such as IN as adenosine NN adenosine deaminase NN ( ( ( ADA NP Ada ) ) ) , , , collagen NN collagen , , , histamine NN histamine , , , IgE NP , , , myoglobin NN myoglobin , , , and CC and nerve NN nerve growth NN growth factor NN factor ( ( ( NGF NP ) ) ) are VBP be endogenously RB endogenously present JJ present in IN in animals NNS animal . SENT . Research NN research from IN from this DT this laboratory NN laboratory reported VVD report decreased VVN decrease levels NNS level of IN of ADA NP Ada , , , histamine NN histamine , , , IgE NP , , , and CC and NGF NP in IN in organs NNS organ of IN of mice NNS mouse injected VVN inject with IN with sub NN sub -lethal NN doses NNS dose of IN of cobra NN cobra venom NN venom . SENT . The DT the goal NN goal of IN of this DT this research NN research is VBZ be to TO to observe VV observe the DT the levels NNS level of IN of ADA NP Ada , , , collagen NN collagen , , , histamine NN histamine , , , IgE NP , , , myoglobin NN myoglobin , , , and CC and NGF NP in IN in certain JJ certain organs NNS organ of IN of mice NNS mouse injected VVN inject with IN with venom NN venom from IN from the DT the bee NN bee Apis NN mellifera NN . SENT . Adult JJ adult Balb/c JJ female JJ female mice NNS mouse IM NP im injected VVD inject with IN with half DT half lethal JJ lethal dose NN dose of IN of bee NN bee venom NN venom were VBD be sacrificed VVN sacrifice after IN after 2 CD 2 and CC and 8 CD 8 hours NNS hour for IN for removal NN removal of IN of organs NNS organ . SENT . The DT the homogenates NNS homogenate of IN of the DT the organs NNS organ were VBD be assayed VVN assay by IN by ELISA NP Elisa for IN for ADA NP Ada , , , collagen NN collagen , , , histamine NN histamine , , , IgE NP , , , myoglobin NN myoglobin , , , and CC and NGF NP using VVG use respective JJ respective antisera NN . SENT . Organs NNS organ from IN from mice NNS mouse injected VVN inject with IN with PBS NP PBS were VBD be used VVN use as IN as controls NNS control . SENT . It PP it was VBD be observed VVN observe that IN that there EX there were VBD be decreased VVN decrease levels NNS level of IN of ADA NP Ada , , , collagen NN collagen , , , histamine NN histamine , , , IgE NP , , , myoglobin NN myoglobin , , , and CC and NGF NP in IN in certain JJ certain organs NNS organ after IN after 2 CD 2 h NN h and CC and tremendous JJ tremendous decrease NN decrease after IN after 8 CD 8 h NN h . SENT . This DT this is VBZ be the DT the first JJ first report NN report showing VVG show the DT the pharmacokinetics NNS of IN of ADA NP Ada , , , collagen NN collagen , , , histamine NN histamine , , , IgE NP , , , myoglobin NN myoglobin , , , and CC and NGF NP as IN as consequence NN consequence of IN of honeybee NN honeybee envenomation NN . SENT . Since IN since primeval JJ primeval times NNS time , , , the DT the inflammatory JJ inflammatory process NN process has VHZ have been VBN be described VVN describe in IN in many JJ many different JJ different ways NNS way . SENT . Several JJ several anti-inflammatory JJ anti-inflammatory therapies NNS therapy have VHP have been VBN be used VVN use in IN in different JJ different biological JJ biological models NNS model . SENT . However RB however , , , in IN in a DT a recent JJ recent `` `` `` back NN back to TO to nature NN nature move NN move '' '' '' , , , modern JJ modern man NN man is VBZ be searching VVG search for IN for natural JJ natural products NNS product with IN with medicinal JJ medicinal properties NNS property , , , particularly RB particularly those DT those obtained VVN obtain from IN from plants NNS plant and CC and bees NNS bee . SENT . Propolis NN propolis has VHZ have been VBN be used VVN use in IN in folk NN folk medicine NN medicine for IN for a DT a very RB very long JJ long time NN time . SENT . The DT the many JJ many compounds NNS compound present JJ present in IN in propolis NN propolis require VVP require investigation NN investigation . SENT . Physical-chemical JJ analysis NN analysis studies NNS study have VHP have not RB not sufficiently RB sufficiently established VVN establish quality NN quality standards NNS standard of IN of propolis NN propolis containing VVG contain products NNS product . SENT . These DT these standards NNS standard should MD should depend VV depend especially RB especially on IN on their PP$ their different JJ different pharmacological JJ pharmacological activities NNS activity . SENT . There EX There are VBP be few JJ few studies NNS study reporting VVG report on IN on the DT the in IN in vitro JJ anti-inflammatory JJ anti-inflammatory activity NN activity of IN of propolis NN propolis containing VVG contain products NNS product . SENT . It PP it is VBZ be necessary JJ necessary to TO to evaluate VV evaluate the DT the anti-inflammatory JJ anti-inflammatory potential NN potential of IN of commercial JJ commercial products NNS product containing VVG contain propolis NN propolis . SENT . Workers NNS worker of IN of the DT the Cape NP Cape honey NN honey bee NN bee Apis NP mellifera NN capensis NN started VVD start to TO to parasitize VV parasitize the DT the African JJ African honey NN honey bee NN bee A. NP A. m. JJ scutellata NN after IN after being VBG being introduced VVN introduce into IN into Gauteng NP ( ( ( former JJ former Northern NP Northern Transvaal NP Transvaal Province NP Province ) ) ) from IN from its PP$ its native JJ native territory NN territory , , , the DT the Cape NP Cape Province NP Province . SENT . The DT the A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN strain NN strain that WDT that is VBZ be parasitic JJ parasitic has VHZ have at IN at least JJS least two CD two traits NNS trait that WDT that make VVP make it PP it a DT a serious JJ serious pest NN pest of IN of the DT the native JJ native African JJ African bee NN bee colonies NNS colony : : : workers NNS worker rapidly RB rapidly develop VVP develop their PP$ their ovaries NNS ovary when WRB when in IN in a DT a non-capensis NN colony NN colony even RB even when WRB when a DT a queen NN queen is VBZ be present JJ present , , , and CC and worker-laid VVN eggs NNS egg are VBP be not RB not killed VVN kill by IN by worker NN worker policing VVG police . SENT . Here RB here we PP we investigate VV investigate whether IN whether A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN workers NNS worker also RB also have VHP have special JJ special mechanisms NNS mechanism to TO to circumvent VV circumvent the DT the guard NN guard bees NNS bee of IN of A. NP A. m. JJ scutellata NN thereby RB thereby aiding VVG aid their PP$ their horizontal JJ horizontal transmission NN transmission between IN between infected JJ infected and CC and non JJ non -infected JJ colonies NNS colony . SENT . We PP we studied VVD study the DT the acceptance NN acceptance of IN of non-nestmate JJ A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN and CC and A. NP A. m. JJ scutellata NN bees NNS bee by IN by guards NNS guard of IN of African JJ African bee NN bee colonies NNS colony by IN by introducing VVG introduce them PP them to TO to the DT the hive NN hive entrance NN entrance of IN of A. NP A. m. JJ scutellata NN colonies NNS colony . SENT . We PP we used VVD use 2 CD 2 A. NP A. m. JJ scutellata NN discriminator NN discriminator colonies NNS colony that WDT that were VBD be both DT both split NN split into IN into a DT a queenright NN and CC and a DT a queenless JJ portion NN portion . SENT . Our PP$ our results NNS result suggest VVP suggest that IN that invading VVG invade workers NNS worker of IN of A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NNS have VHP have no DT no special JJ special mechanisms NNS mechanism to TO to circumvent VV circumvent the DT the African JJ African guards NNS guard . SENT . Neither DT neither race NN race of IN of the DT the introduced VVN introduce bee NN bee nor CC nor presence NN presence or CC or absence NN absence of IN of the DT the queen NN queen in IN in the DT the guarding VVG guard colony NN colony affected VVD affect the DT the proportion NN proportion of IN of introduced VVN introduce workers NNS worker accepted VVD accept . SENT . When WRB when pooled VVN pool , , , 15 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of introduced VVN introduce A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN and CC and 18 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of A. NP A. m. JJ scutellata NN non-nestmate JJ workers NNS worker were VBD be accepted VVN accept by IN by African JJ African guards NNS guard . SENT . Olfaction NN olfaction is VBZ be of IN of considerable JJ considerable importance NN importance to TO to many JJ many insects NNS insect in IN in behaviors NNS behaviour critical JJ critical for IN for survival NN survival and CC and reproduction NN reproduction , , , including VVG include location NN location of IN of food NN food sources NNS source , , , selection NN selection of IN of mates NNS mat_e , , , recognition NN recognition of IN of colony NN colony con-specifics NNS , , , and CC and determination NN determination of IN of oviposition NN oviposition sites NNS site . SENT . An DT an ubiquitous JJ ubiquitous , , , but CC but poorly RB poorly understood VVN understand , , , component NN component of IN of the DT the insect NN insect 's POS 's olfactory JJ olfactory system NN system is VBZ be a DT a group NN group of IN of odorant-binding NN odorant-bind proteins NNS protein ( ( ( OBPs NP ) ) ) that WDT that are VBP be present JJ present at IN at high JJ high concentrations NNS concentration in IN in the DT the aqueous JJ aqueous lymph NN lymph surrounding VVG surround the DT the dendrites NNS dendrite of IN of olfactory JJ olfactory receptor NN receptor neurons NNS neuron . SENT . OBPs NNS are VBP be believed VVN believe to TO to shuttle NN shuttle odorants NNS from IN from the DT the environment NN environment to TO to the DT the underlying JJ underlying odorant JJ odorant receptors NNS receptor , , , for IN for which WDT which they PP they could MD could potentially RB potentially serve VV serve as IN as odorant JJ odorant presenters NNS presenter . SENT . Here RB here we PP we show VVP show that IN that the DT the Drosophila NN drosophila genome NN genome carries VVZ carry 51 CD @card@ potential JJ potential OBP NN genes NNS gene , , , a DT a number NN number comparable JJ comparable to TO to that DT that of IN of its PP$ its odorant-receptor NN genes NNS gene . SENT . We PP we find VVP find that IN that the DT the majority NN majority ( ( ( 73 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) of IN of these DT these OBP-like JJ genes NNS gene occur VVP occur in IN in clusters NNS cluster of IN of as RB as many JJ many as IN as nine CD nine genes NNS gene , , , in IN in contrast NN contrast to TO to what WP what has VHZ have been VBN be observed VVN observe for IN for the DT the Drosophila NN drosophila odorant-receptor NN genes NNS gene . SENT . Two CD Two of IN of the DT the presumptive JJ presumptive OBP JJ gene NN gene clusters NNS cluster each DT each carries VVZ carry an DT an odorant-receptor NN gene NN gene . SENT . We PP we also RB also report VVP report an DT an intriguing JJ intriguing subfamily NN subfamily of IN of 12 CD @card@ putative JJ putative OBPs NNS that IN that share NN share a DT a unique JJ unique C-terminal NN structure NN structure with IN with three CD three conserved VVN conserve cysteines NNS cysteine and CC and a DT a conserved VVN conserve proline NN proline . SENT . Members NNS member of IN of this DT this subfamily NN subfamily have VHP have not RB not previously RB previously been VBN be described VVN describe for IN for any DT any insect NN insect . SENT . We PP we have VHP have performed VVN perform phylogenetic JJ phyletic analyses NNS analysis of IN of the DT the OBP-related JJ proteins NNS protein in IN in Drosophila NN drosophila as IN as well RB well as IN as other JJ other insects NNS insect , , , and CC and we PP we discuss VVP discuss the DT the duplication NN duplication and CC and divergence NN divergence of IN of the DT the genes NNS gene for IN for this DT this large JJ large family NN family . SENT . We PP we estimated VVD estimate pollen NN pollen release NN release from IN from hourly JJ hourly stamen NN stamen samples NNS sample of IN of a DT a typical JJ typical pollen NN pollen flower NN flower , , , Cistus NN cistus salvifolius NN , , , and CC and determined VVD determine the DT the daily JJ daily pollen NN pollen presentation NN presentation schedule NN schedule . SENT . Half-hourly JJ half-hourly honey NN honey bee NN bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) pollen NN pollen foraging VVG forage on IN on C. NP C. salvifolius NN varied VVD vary significantly RB significantly within IN within and CC and between IN between days NNS day even RB even though IN though data NNS datum were VBD be only RB only collected VVN collect on IN on clear JJ clear sunny JJ sunny days NNS day . SENT . We PP we found VVD find that IN that flower NN flower observations NNS observation varied VVN vary between IN between flower NN flower patches NNS patch of IN of a DT a very RB very restricted VVN restrict area NN area . SENT . We PP we fitted VVD fit a DT a simple JJ simple linear JJ linear model NN model to TO to half-hourly JJ half-hourly pollen NN pollen foraging VVG forage and CC and used VVN use the DT the model NN model to TO to predict VV predict observed JJ observed pollen NN pollen release NN release . SENT . For IN for each DT each day NN day , , , we PP we calculated VVD calculate the DT the optimal JJ optimal time NN time delay NN delay between IN between pollen NN pollen foraging VVG forage and CC and pollen NN pollen release NN release . SENT . For IN for 9 CD 9 out IN out of IN of 10 CD @card@ days NNS day the DT the time NN time delay NN delay was VBD be between IN between 28 CD @card@ min NN min and CC and 60 CD @card@ min NN min . SENT . The DT the average JJ average pollen NN pollen foraging VVG forage was VBD be about RB about 44 CD @card@ min NN min time NN time delayed VVD delay compared VVN compare to TO to average JJ average hourly JJ hourly pollen NN pollen release NN release . SENT . Incorporating VVG incorporate the DT the time NN time delay NN delay in IN in the DT the pollen NN pollen foraging VVG forage model NN model to TO to predict VV predict pollen NN pollen release NN release for IN for each DT each of IN of the DT the 10 CD @card@ days NNS day , , , we PP we found VVD find a DT a non-significant JJ difference NN difference between IN between observed VVN observe and CC and predicted VVN predict hourly JJ hourly pollen NN pollen release NN release for IN for all DT all days NNS day . SENT . We PP we therefore RB therefore suggest VVP suggest that DT that pollen NN pollen foraging VVG forage of IN of honey NN honey bees NNS bee is VBZ be determined VVN determine by IN by the DT the pollen NN pollen availability NN availability and CC and that DT that monitoring NN monitoring of IN of hourly JJ hourly pollen NN pollen release NN release in IN in entomophilous JJ entomophilous flowers NNS flower may MD may be VB be done VVN do through IN through simple JJ simple observations NNS observation of IN of pollinator NN pollinator foraging VVG forage . SENT . It PP it is VBZ be a DT a dictum NN dictum that IN that Apis NP mellifera NP Linnaeus NP is VBZ be innocuous JJ innocuous in IN in agricultural JJ agricultural ecosystems NNS ecosystem . SENT . This DT this study NN study provides VVZ provide the DT the first JJ first record NN record of IN of A. NP A. mellifera NN as IN as a DT a significant JJ significant defoliator NN defoliator of IN of Alnus NP species NNS specie . SENT . Careful JJ careful field NN field observations NNS observation coupled VVN couple with IN with microscopic JJ microscopic examination NN examination provided VVD provided convincing JJ convincing evidence NN evidence implicating VVG implicate A. NP A. mellifera NN as IN as the DT the cause NN cause of IN of leaf NN leaf perforation NN perforation on IN on Alnus NP species NNS specie in IN in Uganda NP Uganda . SENT . Apis NN mellifera NN was VBD be observed VVN observe foraging VVG forage selectively RB selectively on IN on young JJ young Alnus NP leaves NNS leaf and CC and buds NNS bud in IN in search NN search of IN of a DT a sticky JJ sticky substance NN substance , , , apparently RB apparently propolis NN propolis . SENT . In IN in so RB so doing VVG do , , , the DT the bee NN bee created VVD create wounds NNS wound that IN that enlarged JJ enlarged and CC and caused VVD cause tattering VVG tatter of IN of Alnus NP leaves VVZ leave as IN as they PP they matured VVN mature . SENT . Biological JJ biological surveys NNS survey indicated VVN indicate that IN that the DT the damage NN damage was VBD be prevalent JJ prevalent and CC and occurred VVD occur widely RB widely , , , particularly RB particularly on IN on Alnus NP acuminata NP acuminata Kunth NP in IN in Uganda NP Uganda . SENT . Incidence NN incidence of IN of the DT the Apis NP mellifera NN damage NN damage on IN on Alnus NP acuminata NP acuminata peaked VVD peak in IN in the DT the dry JJ dry season NN season , , , with IN with up RB up to TO to 90 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of leaves NNS leaf emerging VVG emerge per IN per shoot NN shoot per IN per month NN month damaged VVN damage , , , and CC and was VBD be lowest JJS low in IN in the DT the wet JJ wet months NNS month during IN during peak JJ peak leaf NN leaf emergence NN emergence . SENT . Apis NP mellifera NN leaf NN leaf damage NN damage was VBD be consistently RB consistently higher JJR high on IN on Alnus NP acuminata NP acuminata than IN than A. NP A. nepalensis NP D. NP D. Don. NP , , , on IN on saplings NNS sapling than IN than mature JJ mature trees NNS tree , , , and CC and on IN on sun NN sun exposed VVN expose than IN than shaded VVN shade leaves NNS leaf . SENT . The DT the activity NN activity of IN of honeybees NNS honeybee may MD may be VB be detrimental JJ detrimental to TO to the DT the productivity NN productivity of IN of Alnus NP , , , yet RB yet the DT the substance NN substance for IN for which WDT which the DT the insect NN insect forages VVZ forage on IN on Alnus NP is VBZ be a DT a resource NN resource with IN with potential JJ potential economic JJ economic importance NN importance . SENT . We PP we conducted VVD conduct a DT a series NN series of IN of experiments NNS experiment under IN under laboratory NN laboratory conditions NNS condition to TO to evaluate VV evaluate the DT the feasibility NN feasibility of IN of using VVG use a DT a neem-based VVN ( ( ( Azadirachta NP indica NN ) ) ) insecticide NN insecticide to TO to control VV control varroa NN ( ( ( Varroa NP jacobsoni NP ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the experiments NNS experiment included VVD include studies NNS study of IN of anti-feeding VVG effects NNS effect of IN of azadirachtin NN , , , the DT the active JJ active ingredient NN ingredient of IN of neem-based VVN insecticides NNS insecticide , , , on IN on adult NN adult worker NN worker honey NN honey bees NNS bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NP ) ) ) ; : ; toxicity NN toxicity of IN of azadirachtin NN to TO to adult NN adult workers NNS worker , , , worker NN worker larvae NNS larva and CC and associated VVN associate mites NNS mite ; : ; and CC and the DT the effects NNS effect of IN of azadirachtin NN on IN on female JJ female V. NP V. jacobsoni NN reproduction NN reproduction . SENT . Both DT both commercially RB commercially formulated VVN formulate and CC and purified VVN purify azadirachtin NN were VBD be used VVN use in IN in the DT the experiments NNS experiment . SENT . The DT the results NNS result of IN of adult JJ adult feeding NN feeding experiments NNS experiment showed VVD show that DT that azadirachtin NN significantly RB significantly reduced VVN reduce syrup NN syrup consumption NN consumption by IN by worker NN worker bees NNS bee ( ( ( P NN P < SYM < 0.05 CD @card@ ) ) ) and CC and exhibited VVN exhibit a DT a dose NN dose response NN response in IN in mortality NN mortality : : : with IN with an DT an oral JJ oral LC50 NN of IN of 10.87 CD @card@ mug/ml NN in IN in mite-free JJ bees NNS bee , , , 13.69 CD @card@ mug/ml NN in IN in mite-infested VVN bees NNS bee , , , and CC and 41.87 CD @card@ mug/ml NN for IN for associated VVN associate mites NNS mite . SENT . The DT the topical JJ topical LC50 NN of IN of azadirachtin NN was VBD be 12.53 CD @card@ mug/ml NN in IN in mite-free JJ bees NNS bee , , , 12.31 CD @card@ mug/ml NN in IN in mite-infested VVN bees NNS bee , , , and CC and 35.43 CD @card@ mug/ml NN in IN in the DT the associated VVN associate mites NNS mite . SENT . The DT the results NNS result of IN of larval JJ larval feeding NN feeding experiments NNS experiment showed VVD show that IN that worker NN worker larvae NNS larva were VBD be more RBR more sensitive JJ sensitive to TO to azadirachtin VV than IN than adult JJ adult worker NN worker bees NNS bee : : : exhibiting VVG exhibit an DT an LC50 NP of IN of 180.92 CD @card@ ng/ml NN to TO to purified VVN purify azadirachtin NN and CC and 100.13 CD @card@ ng/ml NN to TO to formulated VVN formulate azadirachtin NN . SENT . More JJR more than IN than 90 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of treated VVN treat , , , normal-appearing VVG , , , white JJ white prepupae NN and CC and pupae NNS pupa showed VVD show precocious JJ precocious and CC and abnormal JJ abnormal pigmentation NN pigmentation on IN on their PP$ their mouthparts NNS mouthpart and CC and other JJ other appendages NNS appendage . SENT . LC50 NP 's POS 's of IN of topical JJ topical applications NNS application of IN of formulated VVN formulate azadirachtin NN were VBD be 104.91 CD @card@ , , , 99.12 CD @card@ and CC and 171.37 CD @card@ ng/ml NN for IN for mite-free JJ worker NN worker larvae NNS larva , , , miteinoculated JJ larvae NNS larva and CC and associated VVN associate mites NNS mite , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . In IN in addition NN addition , , , feeding VVG feed host NN host larvae NNS larva with IN with azadirachtin NN significantly RB significantly reduced VVD reduce the DT the fecundity NN fecundity of IN of mother NN mother mites NNS mite ( ( ( P NN P < SYM < 0.001 CD @card@ ) ) ) as IN as well RB well as IN as egg NN egg hatching VVG hatch rate NN rate ( ( ( P NN P < SYM < 0.001 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . However RB however , , , more JJR more research NN research is VBZ be needed VVN need to TO to evaluate VV evaluate the DT the reproductive JJ reproductive effects NNS effect of IN of azadirachtin NN on IN on drones NNS drone , , , queens NNS queen , , , and CC and varroa NN under IN under hive NN hive conditions NNS condition . SENT . Various JJ various preparations NNS preparation of IN of culture NN culture media NNS medium were VBD be used VVN use to TO to study VV study their PP$ their suitability NN suitability for IN for the DT the production NN production of IN of ascospores NNS ascospore and CC and the DT the maintenance NN maintenance of IN of two CD two sexually RB sexually compatible JJ compatible local JJ local isolates VVZ isolate of IN of putative JJ putative Ascosphaera NP apis NN ( ( ( causative JJ causative agent NN agent of IN of chalkbrood NN ) ) ) obtained VVN obtain from IN from white JJ white honey NN honey bee NN bee mummies NNS mummy . SENT . Morphometric JJ analysis NN analysis and CC and characterization NN characterization of IN of the DT the isolates VVZ isolate showed VVD show that IN that the DT the local JJ local isolates NNS isolate were VBD be A. NP A. apis NN . SENT . Malt NN malt yeast NN yeast with IN with 20 CD @card@ % NN % dextrose NN dextrose agar NN agar ( ( ( MY20 NP ) ) ) was VBD be the DT the most RBS most suitable JJ suitable medium NN medium for IN for ascospore NN ascospore production NN production . SENT . Based VVN base on IN on mycelium NN mycelium aging VVG age , , , integral JJ integral rice NN rice kernel NN kernel ( ( ( IRK VV irk ) ) ) medium NN medium was VBD be the DT the best JJS good for IN for the DT the maintenance NN maintenance of IN of A. NP A. apis NN isolates VVZ isolate . SENT . Spore-cyst NN size NN size was VBD be the DT the main JJ main morphometric JJ feature NN feature affected VVN affect by IN by culture NN culture medium NN medium . SENT . IRK VV irk medium NN medium induced VVD induce the DT the development NN development of IN of larger JJR large spore NN swarm cysts NNS cyst . SENT . Using VVG use direct JJ direct RT-PCR NP , , , Kashmir NP Kashmir bee NN bee virus NN virus ( ( ( KBV NP ) ) ) was VBD be detected VVN detect in IN in the DT the faecal JJ material NN material of IN of worker NN worker and CC and queen NN queen honey NN honey bees NNS bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) . SENT . This DT this occurrence NN occurrence implies VVZ imply that IN that KBV NP could MD could be VB be transmitted VVN transmit horizontally RB horizontally in IN in bee NN bee colonies NNS colony without IN without involving VVG involve the DT the suspected JJ suspected mite NN mite vector NN vector , , , Varroa NP jacobsoni NP . SENT . The DT the molecular JJ molecular techniques NNS technique described VVN describe in IN in this DT this study NN study can MD can be VB be used VVN use to TO to certify VV certify KBV-free JJ queens NNS queen sold VVN sell to TO to beekeepers NNS beekeeper . SENT . Honeybees NNS honeybee have VHP have evolved VVN evolve numerous JJ numerous mechanisms NNS mechanism for IN for increasing VVG increase colony-level NN foraging VVG forage efficiency NN efficiency , , , mainly RB mainly the DT the combined JJ combined system NN system of IN of scout-recruit NN division NN division of IN of labour NN labour and CC and recruitment NN recruitment communication NN communication . SENT . A DT a successful JJ successful forager NN forager performs VVZ perform waggle NN waggle dances NNS dance on IN on the DT the surface NN surface of IN of the DT the comb NNS coomb where WRB where it PP it interacts VVZ interact with IN with nectar NN nectar receivers NNS receiver and CC and dance NN dance followers NNS follower . SENT . A DT a forager NN forager uses VVZ use tremble NN tremble dance NN dance when WRB when it PP it experiences VVZ experience difficulty NN difficulty finding VVG find a DT a receiver NN receiver bee NN bee to TO to unload VV unload food NN food upon IN upon return NN return to TO to the DT the hive NN hive . SENT . A DT a bee NN bee colony NN colony containing VVG contain numerous JJ numerous subfamilies NNS subfamily may MD may increase VV increase its PP$ its efficiency NN efficiency in IN in dance NN dance communication NN communication if IN if dances NNS dance are VBP be realized VVN realize by IN by particular JJ particular groups NNS group of IN of specialized JJ specialized individuals NNS individual or CC or subfamilies NNS subfamily rather RB rather than IN than by IN by undifferentiated JJ undifferentiated workers NNS worker . SENT . In IN in this DT this study NN study , , , we PP we determined VVD determine the DT the subfamily NN subfamily frequencies NNS frequency of IN of waggle NN waggle and CC and tremble NN tremble dancers NNS dancer in IN in a DT a colony NN colony headed VVN head by IN by a DT a naturally RB naturally mated VVN mate queen NN queen , , , where WRB where the DT the 17 CD @card@ subfamilies NNS subfamily can MD can be VB be identified VVN identify by IN by microsatellite JJ genetic JJ genetic markers NNS marker . SENT . Our PP$ our results NNS result demonstrate VVP demonstrate that IN that a DT a genetic JJ genetic component NN component is VBZ be associated VVN associate with IN with the DT the dance NN dance communication NN communication in IN in honeybees NNS honeybee . SENT . More JJR more than IN than half NN half of IN of the DT the waggle NN waggle dances NNS dance and CC and the DT the tremble NN tremble dances NNS dance were VBD be performed VVN perform by IN by workers NNS worker from IN from only RB only four CD four subfamilies NNS subfamily in IN in each DT each case NN case . SENT . Malate NN malate dehydrogenase NN dehydrogenase ( ( ( MDH NP ) ) ) is VBZ be an DT an important JJ important enzyme NN enzyme in IN in glycometabolism NN . SENT . MDH NP of IN of Apis NP mellifera NP showed VVD show three CD three enzyme NN enzyme active JJ active zones NNS zone , , , MDH NP I NP I , , , MDH NP II NP II and CC and MDH NP III NP III . SENT . MDH NP I NP I and CC and MDH NP III NP III maintained VVD maintain relative JJ relative stability NN stability in IN in different JJ different castes NNS caste and CC and developmental JJ developmental phases NNS phase , , , but CC but MDH NP II NP II was VBD be polymorphic JJ polymorphous , , , and CC and controlled VVN control by IN by three CD three alleles NNS allele , , , a DT a , , , b SYM b and CC and c SYM c . SENT . MDH NP of IN of Apis NP cerana NN was VBD be coded VVN code by IN by S NP S and CC and F NP F alleles NNS allele , , , but CC but some DT some authors NNS author reported VVD report it PP it is VBZ be monomorphic JJ monomorphic . SENT . MDH NP was VBD be applied VVN apply to TO to the DT the studies NNS study of IN of A. NP A. mellifera NN , , , which WDT which included VVD include several JJ several aspects NNS aspect as RB as follows VVZ follow : : : the DT the number NN number of IN of queen NN queen matings NNS mating , , , labor NN labour division NN division in IN in honeybee NN honeybee societies NNS society , , , the DT the analysis NN analysis of IN of genetic JJ genetic constitution NN constitution in IN in honeybee NN honeybee populations NNS population and CC and so RB so on IN on . SENT . The DT the combination NN combination of IN of both DT both MDH NP and CC and molecular JJ molecular biology NN biology will MD will certainly RB certainly promote VV promote honeybee NN honeybee studies NNS study . SENT . Modifications NNS modification in IN in endocrine JJ endocrine programs NNS programme are VBP be common JJ common mechanisms NNS mechanism that WDT that generate VVP generate alternative JJ alternative phenotypes NNS phenotype . SENT . In IN in order NN order to TO to understand VV understand how WRB how such JJ such changes NNS change may MD may have VH have evolved VVN evolve , , , we PP we analyzed VVD analyse the DT the pupal JJ pupal ecdysteroid JJ titers NNS titre in IN in two CD two closely RB closely related VVN relate , , , highly RB highly social JJ social bees NNS bee : : : the DT the honey NN honey bee NN bee , , , Apis NP mellifera NN , , , and CC and a DT a stingless JJ stingless bee NN bee , , , Melipona NP quadrifasciata NN . SENT . In IN in both DT both species NN species , , , the DT the ecdysteroid JJ titers NNS titre in IN in queens NNS queen reached VVD reach their PP$ their peak NN peak levels NNS level earlier RBR earlier than IN than in IN in workers NNS worker . SENT . Titer NN titre levels NNS level at IN at peak NN peak maxima NN maxima did VVD do not RB not differ VV differ for IN for the DT the honey NN honey bee NN bee castes NNS caste , , , but CC but in IN in Melipona NP they PP they were VBD be twofold RB twofold higher JJR high in IN in queens NNS queen than IN than in IN in workers NNS worker . SENT . During IN during the DT the second JJ second half NN half of IN of pupal JJ pupal development NN development , , , when WRB when the DT the ecdysteroid JJ titers NNS titre decrease NN decrease and CC and the DT the cuticle NN cuticle progressively RB progressively melanizes VVZ , , , the DT the titer NN titre in IN in honey NN honey bee NN bee queens NNS queen remained VVD remain higher JJR high than IN than in IN in workers NNS worker , , , while IN while the DT the reverse JJ reverse situation NN situation was VBD be observed VVN observe in IN in Melipona NP . SENT . Application NN application of IN of the DT the juvenile JJ juvenile hormone NN hormone analog NN analogue Pyriproxyfen NP ( ( ( R NP R ) ) ) to TO to spinning JJ spinning -stage NN larvae NNS larva of IN of Melipona NP induced VVD induce queen NN queen development NN development . SENT . Endocrinologically RB this DT this was VBD be manifest JJ manifest in IN in a DT a queen-like JJ profile NN profile of IN of the DT the pupal JJ pupal ecdysteroid JJ titer NN titre . SENT . Comparing VVG compare these DT these data NNS datum with IN with previous JJ previous results NNS result on IN on preimaginal JJ hormone NN hormone titers NNS titre in IN in another DT another stingless JJ stingless bee NN bee , , , we PP we conclude VVP conclude that IN that the DT the timing NN timing and CC and height NN height of IN of the DT the pupal JJ pupal ecdysteroid JJ peak NN peak may MD may depend VV depend on IN on the DT the nature NN nature of IN of the DT the specific JJ specific stimuli NNS stimulus that WDT that initially RB initially trigger VVP trigger diverging VVG diverge queen/worker NN development NN development . SENT . In IN in contrast NN contrast , , , the DT the interspecific JJ differences NNS difference in IN in the DT the late JJ late pupal JJ pupal ecdysteroid JJ titer NN titre profiles NNS profile mainly RB mainly seem VVP seem to TO to be VB be related VVN relate to TO to caste-specific JJ programs NNS programme in IN in tissue NN toilet differentiation NN differentiation , , , including VVG include cuticle NN cuticle pigmentation NN pigmentation . SENT . Individually-marked VVN day-old JJ day-old anarchistic JJ anarchistic ( ( ( from IN from a DT a line NN line where WRB where workers NNS worker lay VVD lie eggs NNS egg at IN at high JJ high frequency NN frequency ) ) ) and CC and wild-type NN worker NN worker honey NN honey bees NNS bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NP ) ) ) were VBD be introduced VVN introduce to TO to queenless JJ sections NNS section of IN of anarchistic JJ anarchistic or CC or wildtype JJ host NN host colonies NNS colony housed VVN house in IN in observation NN observation hives NNS hive . SENT . After IN after 14 CD @card@ days NNS day , , , some DT some introduced VVN introduce workers NNS worker had VHD have activated VVN activate ovaries NNS ovary , , , and CC and we PP we then RB then removed VVD remove the DT the screens NNS screen separating VVG separate the DT the queenless JJ from IN from the DT the queenright JJ sections NNS section of IN of the DT the observation NN observation hives NNS hive . SENT . We PP we then RB then observed VVD observe all DT all instances NNS instance of IN of aggression NN aggression against IN against marked JJ marked workers NNS worker for IN for 3 CD 3 hours NNS hour . SENT . The DT the colonies NNS colony were VBD be then RB then killed VVN kill and CC and all DT all marked JJ marked bees NNS bee retrieved VVD retrieve and CC and scored VVD score for IN for ovary NN ovary activation NN activation . SENT . About IN about 10-40 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of workers NNS worker had VHD have activated VVN activate ovaries NNS ovary . SENT . In IN in 3 CD 3 of IN of 6 CD 6 colonies NNS colony , , , wild-type NN workers NNS worker were VBD be attacked VVN attack more RBR more often RB often if IN if they PP they had VHD have activated VVN activate ovaries NNS ovary than IN than workers NNS worker without IN without activated VVN activate ovaries NNS ovary . SENT . Anarchistic JJ anarchistic workers NNS worker were VBD be more RBR more likely JJ likely to TO to be VB be attacked VVN attack if IN if they PP they had VHD have activated VVN activate ovaries NNS ovary in IN in one CD one anarchistic JJ anarchistic host NN host colony NN colony only RB only , , , but CC but in IN in one CD one wild-type NN host NN host they PP they were VBD be more RBR more likely JJ likely to TO to be VB be attacked VVN attack if IN if they PP they had VHD have inactive JJ inactive ovaries NNS ovary . SENT . In IN in all DT all colonies NNS colony there EX there was VBD be no DT no significant JJ significant difference NN difference in IN in attack NN attack rates NNS rate between IN between anarchistic JJ anarchistic and CC and wild JJ wild -type NN workers NNS worker with IN with activated VVN activate ovaries NNS ovary . SENT . This DT this indicates VVZ indicate that IN that , , , like IN like wild-type NN workers NNS worker , , , anarchistic JJ anarchistic workers NNS worker are VBP be unable JJ unable to TO to mask VV mask their PP$ their ovary NN ovary activation NN activation from IN from other JJ other workers NNS worker . SENT . This DT this study NN study supports VVZ support the DT the hypothesis NN hypothesis some DT some policing VVG police occurs VVZ occur via IN via attacks NNS attack on IN on individuals NNS individual with IN with activated VVN activate ovaries NNS ovary , , , but CC but that IN that this DT this system NN system is VBZ be much RB much less RBR less accurate JJ accurate and CC and acute JJ acute than IN than the DT the policing VVG police system NN system based VVN base on IN on egg NN egg eating NN eating . SENT . To TO To investigate VV investigate the DT the behavioural JJ response NN response of IN of drone NN drone honey NN honey bees NNS bee , , , Apis NP mellifera NP carnica NP and CC and Apis NP mellifera NN scutellata NN , , , to TO to the DT the pheromone NN pheromone components NNS component isopentyl NN acetate NN acetate ( ( ( IPA NP IPA ) ) ) and CC and geraniol NN geraniol , , , and CC and the DT the non-pheromone NN octanal NN , , , we PP we conducted VVD conduct three CD three different JJ different types NNS type of IN of experiment NN experiment : : : ( ( ( 1 LS 1 ) ) ) , , , in IN in a DT a glass NN glass arena NN arena ; : ; ( ( ( 2 LS 2 ) ) ) , , , in IN in a DT a Y-shaped JJ maze NN maze ; : ; and CC and ( ( ( 3 LS 3 ) ) ) , , , in IN in a DT a classical JJ classical conditioning NN conditioning test NN test . SENT . IPA NP IPA caused VVD cause arousal NN arousal ( ( ( more JJR more walking NN walking and CC and wing NN wing beating NN beating ) ) ) and CC and avoidance NN avoidance , , , and CC and geraniol NN geraniol caused VVD cause arousal NN arousal and CC and attraction NN attraction for IN for drones NNS drone of IN of both DT both subspecies NN subspecies . SENT . In IN in the DT the conditioning NN conditioning experiment NN experiment the DT the learning VVG learn success NN success of IN of the DT the drones NNS drone was VBD be high JJ high for IN for geraniol NN geraniol , , , medium NN medium for IN for octanal JJ and CC and low JJ low for IN for IPA NP IPA . SENT . Cuticular JJ cuticular hydrocarbon NN hydrocarbon profiles NNS profile of IN of drone NN drone honey NN honey bees NNS bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN carnica NN ) ) ) of IN of different JJ different ages NNS age were VBD be compared VVN compare by IN by gas NN gas chromatography NN chromatography . SENT . Chromatograms NNS chromatogram of IN of drones NNS drone from IN from three CD three different JJ different colonies NNS colony were VBD be similar JJ similar and CC and , , , despite IN despite some DT some variations NNS variation , , , showed VVD show the DT the same JJ same patterns NNS pattern as IN as a DT a function NN function of IN of age NN age . SENT . We PP we suggest VVP suggest that IN that in IN in addition NN addition to TO to behavioural JJ changes NNS change , , , the DT the surface NN surface hydrocarbon NN hydrocarbon profiles NNS profile of IN of the DT the drones NNS drone might MD might be VB be used VVN use as IN as a DT a cue NN cue for IN for the DT the worker NN worker bees NNS bee to TO to discriminate JJ discriminate between IN between young JJ young and CC and old JJ old individuals NNS individual . SENT . Most RBS most commercial JJ commercial almond JJ almond cultivars NNS cultivar are VBP be self-incompatible JJ and CC and flowering JJ flowering occurs VVZ occur in IN in early JJ early spring NN spring when WRB when weather NN weather conditions NNS condition are VBP be often RB often unfavourable JJ unfavourable for IN for pollinator NN pollinator flight NN flight . SENT . Thus RB thus , , , inadequate JJ inadequate cross-pollination NN cross-pollination frequently RB frequently limits VVZ limit almond JJ almond yield NN yield . SENT . We PP we evaluated VVD evaluate the DT the effect NN effect of IN of pollen NN pollen dispensers NNS dispenser ( ( ( inserts NNS insert ) ) ) , , , fixed VVN fix onto IN onto honey NN honey bee NN bee hives NNS hive , , , on IN on almond JJ almond fruit NN fruit set NN set and CC and yield NN yield in IN in orchards NNS orchard differing VVG differ in IN in planting VVG plant design NN design , , , i.e. FW i.e. varying VVG vary in IN in the DT the arrangement NN arrangement and CC and proximity NN proximity of IN of the DT the main JJ main cultivar NN cultivar and CC and pollinizers NNS . SENT . Pollen NN pollen dispensers NNS dispenser did VVD do not RB not increase VV increase fruit-set VVN percentage NN percentage and CC and yield NN yield in IN in the DT the 1 CD 1 : : : 1 CD 1 : : : 1 CD 1 planting NN planting design NN design in IN in which WDT which ( ( ( a DT a ) ) ) , , , pollinizer NN rows NNS row were VBD be planted VVN plant on IN on either DT either side NN side of IN of the DT the main JJ main cultivar NN cultivar rows NNS row ; : ; and CC and ( ( ( b LS b ) ) ) , , , bloom NN bloom overlap VVP overlap was VBD be good JJ good between IN between the DT the pollinizers NNS ( ( ( cv NN . SENT . Carmel NP Carmel and CC and Monterey NP Monterey ) ) ) and CC and the DT the main JJ main cultivar NN cultivar Nonpareil NN nonpareil . SENT . In IN in contrast NN contrast , , , pollen NN pollen dispensers NNS dispenser increased VVD increase fruit-set VVN percentage NN percentage and CC and yield NN yield in IN in the DT the 1 CD 1 : : : 2 CD 2 : : : 1 CD 1 ( ( ( one CD one pollinizer NN row NN row : : : two CD two Nonpareil NN nonpareil rows NNS row : : : one CD one pollinizer NN row NN row ) ) ) planting NN planting design NN design in IN in which WDT which the DT the branches NNS branch of IN of the DT the two CD two Nonpareil JJ nonpareil rows NNS row facing VVG face each DT each other JJ other were VBD be more RBR more distant JJ distant from IN from effective JJ effective pollinizers NNS , , , and CC and bloom NN bloom overlap VVP overlap between IN between Nonpareil NN nonpareil and CC and one NN one of IN of its PP$ its pollinizers NNS ( ( ( Mission NP Mission ) ) ) was VBD be suboptimal JJ suboptimal . SENT . The DT the increase NN increase in IN in fruit NN fruit set NN set and CC and yield NN yield , , , attributable JJ attributable to TO to the DT the use NN use of IN of pollen NN pollen dispensers NNS dispenser occurred VVD occur primarily RB primarily on IN on Nonpareil JJ nonpareil branches NNS branch facing VVG face the DT the adjacent JJ adjacent Nonpareil JJ nonpareil row NN row . SENT . The DT the impact NN impact of IN of pollen NN pollen dispensers NNS dispenser was VBD be significant JJ significant at IN at 50 CD @card@ m NN m but CC but not RB not at IN at 150 CD @card@ m NN m from IN from the DT the hive NN hive . SENT . Although IN Although pollen NN pollen dispensers NNS dispenser have VHP have been VBN be used VVN use for IN for more JJR more than IN than 60 CD @card@ years NNS year , , , this DT this is VBZ be the DT the first JJ first large-scale JJ large-scale study NN study with IN with replication NN replication , , , conducted VVN conduct under IN under commercial JJ commercial conditions NNS condition that WDT that demonstrates VVZ demonstrate their PP$ their benefit NN benefit when WRB when cross-pollination NN cross-pollination is VBZ be limited VVN limited . SENT . This DT this research NN research was VBD be carried VVN carry out RP out in IN in Ituverava NP SP NP SP Brazil NP Brazil , , , to TO to evaluate VV evaluate frequency NN frequency , , , nectar NN nectar or CC or pollen NN pollen hoarding NN hoarding by IN by insects NNS insect , , , opening VVG opening and CC and closing VVG close time NN time of IN of flowers NNS flower in IN in okra NN okra crop NN crop , , , Abelmoschus NP esculentus NP ( ( ( Malvaceae NP ) ) ) var NN var . SENT . Chifre-de IN -veado NN , , , and CC and the DT the effect NN effect of IN of their PP$ their visits NNS visit in IN in fruit NN fruit production NN production . SENT . Flowers NNS flower were VBD be visited VVN visit by IN by insects NNS insect between IN between 7 CD 7 a.m. NN a.m. to TO to 6 CD 6 p.m NN p.m . SENT . The DT the flowers NNS flower were VBD be marked VVN mark and CC and fruit NN fruit set NN set was VBD be evaluated VVN evaluate : : : 10 CD @card@ flowers NNS flower were VBD be protected VVN protect with IN with a DT a bag NN bag and CC and compared VVN compare to TO to same JJ same quantity NN quantity of IN of unprotected JJ unprotected flowers NNS flower . SENT . Okra NN okra flowers NNS flower began VVD begin opening VVG opening by IN by 9 CD 9 : : : 40 CD @card@ a.m. NN a.m. to TO to 10 CD @card@ a.m. NN a.m. and CC and closing NN closing by IN by 2 CD 2 : : : 45 CD @card@ p.m. NN p.m. and CC and 3 CD 3 : : : 20 CD @card@ p.m. NN p.m. of IN of the DT the same JJ same day NN day , , , when WRB when they PP they started VVD start to TO to shrivel VV shrivel . SENT . The DT the insects NNS insect observed VVD observe in IN in nectar NN nectar hoarding NN hoarding were VBD be Hymenoptera NP ( ( ( Melipona NP sp. NP ) ) ) and CC and Lepidoptera NP . SENT . In IN in pollen NN pollen hoarding NN hoarding , , , insects NNS insect most RBS most frequently RB frequently were VBD be Thysanoptera NP , , , Formicidae NP , , , Coleoptera NP and CC and Hymenoptera NP ( ( ( Melipona NP sp. NP and CC and Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the crop NN crop showed VVD show 100 CD @card@ % NN % auto NN auto fertilization NN fertilization and CC and did VVD do not RB not require VV require pollinators NNS pollinator to TO to produce VV produce fruits NNS fruit . SENT . However RB however , , , in IN in flowers NNS flower visited VVD visit by IN by insects NNS insect fruits NNS fruit were VBD be heavier JJR heavy , , , longer JJR long and CC and wider JJR wide . SENT . Honeybee NN honeybee workers NNS worker , , , Apis NP mellifera NN , , , usually RB usually do VVP do not RB not reproduce VV reproduce but CC but can MD can activate VV activate their PP$ their ovaries NNS ovary under IN under queenless JJ conditions NNS condition to TO to produce VV produce male JJ male offspring NN offspring . SENT . As IN as an DT an exception NN exception to TO to this DT this rule NN rule , , , laying VVG lay workers NNS worker of IN of the DT the Cape NP Cape honeybee NN honeybee , , , A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN , , , parthenogenetically RB parthenogenetically produce VV produce diploid JJ diploid female JJ female offspring NN offspring , , , usually RB usually developing VVG develop into IN into workers NNS worker and CC and occasionally RB occasionally into IN into queens NNS queen . SENT . Some DT some of IN of such JJ such workers NNS worker can MD can develop VV develop into IN into pseudoqueens NNS , , , which WDT which show VVP show high JJ high ovarial JJ development NN development and CC and a DT a queenlike JJ pheromonal JJ bouquet NN bouquet . SENT . Because IN because there EX there is VBZ be high RB high genetic JJ genetic variance NN variance for IN for these DT these characters NNS character , , , this DT this results NNS result in IN in an DT an extreme JJ extreme intracolonial JJ selection NN selection . SENT . This DT this process NN process is VBZ be governed VVN govern by IN by a DT a competition NN competition for IN for reproductive JJ reproductive dominance NN dominance among IN amongst workers NNS worker , , , leading VVG lead into IN into a DT a facultative JJ facultative social JJ social parasitic JJ parasitic reproductive JJ reproductive pathway NN pathway as IN as part NN part of IN of the DT the life NN life history NN history of IN of the DT the Cape NP Cape honeybee NN honeybee . SENT . A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN workers NNS worker show VVP show an DT an increased JJ increased potential NN potential for IN for invading VVG invade foreign JJ foreign colonies NNS colony . SENT . Inside RB inside of IN of the DT the host NN host colony NN colony , , , parasitic JJ parasitic A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN workers NNS worker produce VVP produce queenlike JJ pheromones NNS pheromone and CC and swiftly RB swiftly activate VV activate the DT the ovaries NNS ovary , , , despite IN despite the DT the presence NN presence of IN of a DT a queen NN queen . SENT . Eventually RB eventually they PP they establish VV establish themselves PP themselves as IN as pseudoqueens NNS and CC and replace VV replace the DT the host NN host queen NN queen . SENT . The DT the parasitic JJ parasitic worker NN worker offspring NN offspring is VBZ be preferentially RB preferentially fed VVN feed by IN by the DT the host NN host workers NNS worker , , , leading VVG lead to TO to highly RB highly virulent JJ virulent intercastes NNS and CC and thereby RB thereby completing VVG complete the DT the social JJ social parasitic JJ parasitic life NN life cycle NN cycle of IN of laying VVG lay A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN workers NNS worker . SENT . Recently RB recently , , , a DT a particularly RB particularly virulent JJ virulent parasitic JJ parasitic strain NN strain of IN of A. NP A. m. JJ capensis NN workers NNS worker has VHZ have invaded VVD invade the DT the neighboring JJ neighboring subspecies NN subspecies A. NP A. m. JJ scutellata NN ( ( ( `` `` `` capensis NN calamity NN calamity '' '' '' ) ) ) . SENT . Because IN because male JJ male sexuals NNS are VBP be completely RB completely lacking VVG lack in IN in this DT this invasive JJ invasive strain NN strain and CC and female JJ female reproductives NNS are VBP be never RB never reared VVN rear in IN in infested VVN infest A. NP A. m. JJ scutellata NN host NN host colonies NNS colony , , , this DT this results NNS result in IN in reproductive JJ reproductive isolation NN isolation of IN of the DT the parasitic JJ parasitic clones NNS clone from IN from the DT the host NN host gene NN gene pool NN pool and CC and sets VVZ set the DT the stage NN stage for IN for the DT the evolution NN evolution of IN of a DT a queenless JJ social JJ social parasitic JJ parasitic honeybee NN honeybee . SENT . The DT the Cape NP Cape honeybee NN honeybee may MD may therefore RB therefore constitute VV constitute a DT a unique JJ unique subject NN subject for IN for studying VVG study sympatric JJ sympatric speciation NN speciation of IN of a DT a social JJ social parasite NN parasite . SENT . Synthetic JJ synthetic peptides NNS peptide were VBD be constructed VVN construct with IN with the DT the sequence NN sequence of IN of the DT the first JJ first 20 CD @card@ residues NNS residue of IN of melittin NN and CC and terminating VVG terminate with IN with a DT a range NN range of IN of different JJ different amino NN amino acid NN acid amides NNS amide . SENT . These DT these were VBD be found VVN find to TO to have VH have haemolytic JJ and CC and cytolytic JJ cytolytic activity NN activity similar JJ similar to TO to that DT that of IN of melittin NN , , , provided VVN provided that IN that certain JJ certain charge NN charge constraints NNS constraint were VBD be observed VVN observe . SENT . The DT the nature NN nature of IN of the DT the 21st JJ 21st residue NN residue was VBD be not RB not critical JJ critical except IN except when WRB when the DT the residue NN residue introduced VVD introduce a DT a negative JJ negative charge NN charge . SENT . The DT the presence NN presence of IN of at IN at least JJS least two CD two positive JJ positive charges NNS charge in IN in the DT the molecule NN molecule was VBD be found VVN find to TO to be VB be essential JJ essential for IN for activity NN activity . SENT . One CD One of IN of these DT these charges NNS charge could MD could be VB be the DT the amino-terminal NN amine NN amine . SENT . Peptides NNS peptide could MD could be VB be inactivated VVN inactivate by IN by the DT the addition NN addition of IN of a DT a non-acidic JJ presequence NN which WDT which was VBD be acetylated VVN acetylate at IN at the DT the N-terminus NN . SENT . Introducing VVG introduce a DT a protease NN protease cleavable JJ cleavable sequence NN sequence into IN into an DT an N-terminal NN extension NN extension of IN of the DT the peptides NNS peptide produced VVD produce analogues NNS analogue with IN with low JJ low haemolytic JJ activity NN activity that WDT that could MD could be VB be activated VVN activate by IN by proteolytic JJ action NN action . SENT . A DT a peptide NN peptide with IN with extra JJ extra positive JJ positive charges NNS charge introduced VVN introduce on IN on the DT the hydrophilic JJ hydrophilic face NN face of IN of the DT the helix NN helix possessed VVD possess a DT a haemolytic JJ activity NN activity that WDT that was VBD be greater JJR great than IN than that DT that of IN of melittin NN . SENT . The DT the dramatic JJ dramatic competitive JJ competitive advantage NN advantage of IN of the DT the African JJ African honey NN honey bee NN bee over IN over European JJ European bees NNS bee in IN in the DT the neotropics NN comes VVZ come in IN in large JJ large part NN part from IN from their PP$ their faster JJR fast rates NNS rate of IN of colony NN colony growth NN growth and CC and reproduction NN reproduction . SENT . In IN in honey NN honey bees NNS bee , , , brood NN brood production NN production , , , and CC and thus RB thus colony NN colony growth NN growth , , , are VBP be controlled VVN control by IN by the DT the workers NNS worker . SENT . Thus RB thus , , , we PP we tested VVD test for IN for genetic JJ genetic differences NNS difference between IN between African JJ African and CC and European JJ European workers NNS worker in IN in their PP$ their preference NN preference for IN for tasks NNS task associated VVN associate with IN with brood NN brood production NN production by IN by monitoring VVG monitor individual JJ individual African JJ African and CC and European JJ European workers NNS worker cross-fostered VVN in IN in common JJ common colony NN colony environments NNS environment . SENT . We PP we additionally RB additionally examined VVD examine differences NNS difference in IN in the DT the age NN age of IN of transition NN transition between IN between tasks NNS task ( ( ( age NN age polyethism NN ) ) ) . SENT . Our PP$ our data NNS datum provide VVP provide strong JJ strong evidence NN evidence for IN for genetically RB genetically based VVN base differences NNS difference in IN in a DT a subset NN subset of IN of tasks NNS task . SENT . African JJ African workers NNS worker were VBD be more RBR more likely JJ likely to TO to collect VV collect and CC and process VV process pollen NN pollen , , , the DT the nutrient JJ nutrient source NN source for IN for brood NN brood . SENT . They PP they initiated VVD initiate pollen NN pollen foraging VVG forage at IN at a DT a younger JJR young age NN age , , , but CC but this DT this result NN result was VBD be not RB not significant JJ significant after IN after Bonferroni NP adjustment NN adjustment . SENT . African JJ African and CC and European JJ European workers NNS worker showed VVD show no DT no difference NN difference in IN in brood-care NN task NN task performance NN performance , , , and CC and did VVD do not RB not vary VV vary in IN in the DT the age NN age at IN at which WDT which they PP they performed VVD perform brood-care NN tasks NNS task . SENT . These DT these data NNS datum suggest VVP suggest that IN that a DT a significant JJ significant part NN part of IN of the DT the competitive JJ competitive advantage NN advantage of IN of this DT this major JJ major invasive JJ invasive pest NN pest can MD can be VB be traced VVN trace to TO to a DT a small JJ small subset NN subset of IN of worker NN worker behaviors NNS behaviour , , , those DT those involving VVG involve resource NN resource intake NN intake . SENT . The DT the parasitic JJ parasitic mite NN mite Varroa NP destructor NN destructor Anderson NP Anderson & CC & Trueman NP Trueman is VBZ be a DT a major JJ major pest NN pest of IN of the DT the honeybee NN honeybee Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. throughout IN throughout the DT the world NN world . SENT . Chemical NP Chemical agents NNS agent currently RB currently used VVN use for IN for mite NN mite control NN control leave VVP leave contaminating VVG contaminate residues NNS residue and CC and promote VV promote pesticide NN pesticide resistance NN resistance . SENT . As IN as an DT an alternative NN alternative means VVZ mean of IN of control NN control , , , it PP it would MD would be VB be useful JJ useful to TO to identify VV identify natural JJ natural substances NNS substance enabling VVG enable bees NNS bee to TO to detect VV detect Varroa NP inside IN inside brood NN brood cells NNS cell . SENT . These DT these substances NNS substance could MD could then RB then be VB be used VVN use to TO to trigger VV trigger mite NN mite hygienic JJ hygienic behaviour NN behaviour by IN by bees NNS bee . SENT . In IN in this DT this study NN study several JJ several techniques NNS technique were VBD be used VVN use to TO to screen VV screen substances NNS substance that WDT that might MD might allow VV allow detection NN detection of IN of infested VVN infest brood NN brood cells NNS cell by IN by bees NNS bee . SENT . Gas NN gas chromatography-mass NN spectrometry NN spectrometry analysis NN analysis was VBD be performed VVN perform on IN on substances NNS substance extracted VVN extract in IN in dichloromethane NN from IN from the DT the contents NNS content of IN of brood NN brood cells NNS cell . SENT . Solid JJ solid phase NN phase microextraction NN and CC and solid JJ solid injection NN injection were VBD be performed VVN perform on IN on substances NNS substance obtained VVN obtain from IN from living NN living and CC and dead JJ dead Varroa NP , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . Electroantennography NP was VBD be performed VVN perform to TO to assess VV assess the DT the sensitivity NN sensitivity of IN of olfactory JJ olfactory receptors NNS receptor in IN in bee NN bee antennae NNS antenna to TO to some DT some of IN of these DT these substances NNS substance . SENT . Principal JJ principal component NN component analysis NN analysis based VVN base on IN on proportions NNS proportion of IN of cuticular JJ cuticular substances NNS substance allowed VVD allow discrimination NN discrimination between IN between bees NNS bee and CC and other JJ other cell NN cell contents NNS content . SENT . Foundress NN foundress Varroa NP exhibited VVN exhibit the DT the greatest JJS great dissimilarity NN dissimilarity to TO to healthy JJ healthy pupae NNS pupa that WDT that were VBD be used VVN use as IN as controls NNS control . SENT . Immature JJ immature Varroa NP and CC and faecal JJ material NN material were VBD be intermediate JJ intermediate . SENT . High JJ high molecular JJ molecular weight NN weight compounds NNS compound , , , mainly RB mainly dimethylalkanes NNS , , , were VBD be proportionally RB proportionally the DT the most RBS most characteristic JJ characteristic components NNS component of IN of foundress NN foundress Varroa NP . SENT . This DT this finding NN finding suggests VVZ suggest that IN that these DT these compounds NNS compound would MD would be VB be the DT the most RBS most apt JJ apt to TO to induce VV induce uncapping VVG uncap of IN of cells NNS cell infested VVN infest by IN by Varroa NP . SENT . Solid-phase NN microextraction NN and CC and solid JJ solid injection NN injection demonstrated VVD demonstrate the DT the presence NN presence of IN of aliphatic JJ aliphatic acids NNS acid , , , esters NNS ester , , , and CC and one CD one alcohol NN alcohol , , , eicosenol NN , , , in IN in Varroa NP . SENT . Electroantennographic JJ recordings NNS recording showed VVD show that DT that mite NN mite -resistant NN bees NNS bee were VBD be more RBR more responsive JJ responsive to TO to some DT some acids NNS acid and CC and one CD one ester NN ester . SENT . We PP we speculate VVP speculate that IN that these DT these compounds NNS compound may MD may be VB be involved VVN involve in IN in recognition NN recognition of IN of living VVG live Varroa NP by IN by honeybees NNS honeybee . SENT . At IN at Nkolbisson NP ( ( ( Yaounde NP Yaounde , , , Cameroon NP Cameroon ) ) ) , , , in IN in May NP May 1991 CD @card@ , , , flowers NNS flower of IN of maize NN maize ( ( ( Zea NP Zea mays NNS may L NP L ; : ; Poaceae NP ) ) ) were VBD be observed VVN observe for IN for the DT the study NN study of IN of pollen NN pollen gathering NN gathering by IN by five CD five different JJ different species NNS specie of IN of wild JJ wild bees NNS bee : : : one CD one Apidae NP Meliponinae NP ( ( ( Dactylurina NP staudingeri NP ) ) ) and CC and four CD four Halictidae NP Nomiinae NN ( ( ( Lipotriches NP andrei NP Andrei , , , L. NP L. langi NP , , , L. NP L. notabilis NP and CC and Leuconomia NP granulata NN ) ) ) . SENT . Each DT each of IN of these DT these Apoidea NP is VBZ be well RB well attracted VVN attract by IN by pollen NN pollen of IN of maize NN maize . SENT . The DT the larger JJR large number NN number of IN of bees NNS bee foraging VVG forage at IN at the DT the same JJ same time NN time on IN on a DT a panicle NN panicle varies VVZ vary from IN from one CD one with IN with D. NP D. staudingeri NN to TO to four CD four with IN with L. NP L. andrei NP Andrei and CC and L. NP L. notabilis NN . SENT . Generally RB generally , , , bees NNS bee forage NN forage maize NN maize during IN during the DT the whole JJ whole day NN day and CC and during IN during the DT the full JJ full flowering JJ flowering period NN period but CC but visits NNS visit are VBP be more RBR more numerous JJ numerous in IN in the DT the morning NN morning and CC and during IN during the DT the period NN period of IN of intense JJ intense flowering JJ flowering . SENT . Median JJ Median duration NN duration of IN of a DT a visit NN visit on IN on a DT a male JJ male spikelet NN spikelet varies VVZ vary from IN from 1 CD 1 sec NN sec with IN with D. NP D. staudingeri NN to TO to 7 CD 7 sec NN sec with IN with L. NP L. andrei NNS . SENT . These DT these Apoidea NP have VH have an DT an elaborated VVN elaborate behaviour NN behaviour when WRB when gathering VVG gather pollen NN pollen of IN of maize NN maize . SENT . D. NP D. staudingeri NP however RB however seems VVZ seem less RBR less adapted VVN adapt to TO to the DT the floral JJ floral morphology NN morphology of IN of Poaceae NP comparing VVG compare with IN with Lipotriches NP . SENT . When WRB when foraging VVG forage maize NN maize , , , all PDT all these DT these bees NNS bee are VBP be regular JJ regular visitors NNS visitor to TO to flowers NNS flower of IN of this DT this plant NN plant , , , even RB even in IN in the DT the presence NN presence of IN of other JJ other flower NN flower species NNS specie in IN in the DT the vicinity NN vicinity of IN of the DT the crop NN crop . SENT . Bees NNS bee studied VVD study have VH have a DT a positive JJ positive impact NN impact on IN on the DT the yield NN yield of IN of grains NNS grain due JJ due to TO to a DT a complementary JJ complementary action NN action with IN with the DT the well RB well known VVN know one NN one of IN of the DT the wind NN wind . SENT . The DT the influence NN influence is VBZ be indirect JJ indirect as IN as the DT the bees NNS bee are VBP be seldom RB seldom visiting VVG visit the DT the stigmates NNS . SENT . The DT the explanation NN explanation is VBZ be that IN that when WRB when the DT the bees NNS bee are VBP be very RB very common JJ common on IN on the DT the panicles NNS panicle they PP they shake VVP shake the DT the anthers NNS anther , , , inducing VVG induce the DT the release NN release of IN of pollen NN pollen grains NNS grain in IN in the DT the atmosphere NN atmosphere even RB even in IN in the DT the days NNS day without IN without wind NN wind . SENT . The DT the part NN part of IN of wild JJ wild bees NNS bee in IN in the DT the increase NN increase of IN of yields NNS yield is VBZ be estimated VVN estimate to TO to 3 CD 3 % NN % while IN while the DT the one NN one of IN of the DT the domestic JJ domestic bees NNS bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) is VBZ be estimated VVN estimate to TO to 21 CD @card@ % NN % in IN in that DT that locality NN locality . SENT . The DT the authors NNS author are VBP be reviewing VVG review existing JJ existing literature NN literature on IN on grass NN grass crop NN crop pollination NN pollination and CC and on IN on Poaceae NP in IN in general NN general by IN by various JJ various species NNS specie of IN of bees NNS bee . SENT . For IN for a DT a better RBR better integrated JJ integrated crop NN crop management NN management of IN of maize NN maize in IN in Cameroon NP Cameroon , , , it PP it is VBZ be suggested VVN suggest to TO to conserve VV conserve the DT the nesting VVG nest sites NNS site of IN of Lipotriches NNS in IN in surrounding VVG surround areas NNS area of IN of crops NNS crop and CC and to TO to avoid VV avoid unjustified JJ unjustified use NN use of IN of pesticides NNS pesticide during IN during the DT the flowering JJ flowering period NN period . SENT . Safety NN safety of IN of NeemAzal NP ( ( ( azadirachtin NP 10 CD @card@ , , , 000 CD @card@ ppm NN ppm ) ) ) was VBD be evaluated VVN evaluate at IN at different JJ different dosages NNS dosage against IN against Apis NP mellifera NP Linneaus NP Foragers NNS forager . SENT . NeemAzal JJ at IN at the DT the highest JJS high dosage NN dosage ( ( ( 800 CD @card@ ppm NN ppm ) ) ) was VBD be found VVN find to TO to be VB be safe JJ safe to TO to honeybees NNS honeybee with IN with 7.58 CD @card@ % NN % mortality NN mortality in IN in direct JJ direct toxicity NN toxicity test NN test and CC and 0.74 CD @card@ % NN % mortality NN mortality when WRB when bees NNS bee were VBD be caged VVN cage in IN in cotton NN cotton field NN field after IN after spray NN spray . SENT . However RB however , , , in IN in foliage NN foliage bioassay NN bioassay , , , it PP it caused VVD cause 17.19 CD @card@ % NN % mortality NN mortality of IN of foragers NNS forager . SENT . Triazophos NNS at IN at the DT the recommended JJ recommend dosage NN dosage ( ( ( 2000 CD @card@ ppm NN ppm ) ) ) was VBD be highly RB highly toxic JJ toxic with IN with mortality NN mortality varying VVG vary from IN from 71.41 CD @card@ to TO to 100 CD @card@ % NN % in IN in different JJ different tests NNS test . SENT . The DT the malate NN malate dehydrogenase NN dehydrogenase ( ( ( MDH NP ) ) ) isozyme NN in IN in six CD six subspecies NN subspecies of IN of Apis NP mellifera NN , , , i.e. FW i.e. , , , `` `` `` Zhejiang NP Zhejiang Agricultural NP Agricultural University NP University No.1 JJ A. NP A. m. NN ligustica NN ( ( ( Ea NP Ea ) ) ) , , , A. NP A. m. JJ ssp NN . SENT . ( ( ( Db NP Db ) ) ) , , , A. NP A. m. NP M. carnica NP ( ( ( Cn NP ) ) ) , , , A. NP A. m. NP M. carpatica NP ( ( ( Cp NP Cp ) ) ) , , , A. NP A. m. NP M. caucasica NP ( ( ( Cc NP ) ) ) , , , and CC and A. NP A. m. JJ acervorum NN ( ( ( Ac JJ ) ) ) , , , was VBD be studied VVN study with IN with isoelectrofocusing VVG polyacrylamide NN gel NN gel electrophoresis NN ( ( ( IEF-PAGE NP ) ) ) , , , and CC and their PP$ their genotype NN genotype frequency NN frequency , , , allele NN allele frequency NN frequency , , , homozygous JJ homozygous and CC and heterozygous JJ heterozygous degree NN degree were VBD be analyzed VVN analyse . SENT . Ea NP Ea , , , Cp NP Cp and CC and Cc NP showed VVD show high JJ high homozygous JJ homozygous degree NN degree , , , but CC but the DT the allele NN allele with IN with the DT the highest JJS high frequency NN frequency was VBD be c SYM c in IN in Ea NP Ea ; : ; b LS b in IN in Cp NP Cp ; : ; and CC and a DT a in IN in Cc NP . SENT . Db NP Db , , , Cn NP and CC and Ac JJ are VBP be highly RB highly heterozygous JJ heterozygous subspecies NN subspecies , , , but CC but the DT the frequency NN frequency differences NNS difference of IN of the DT the allele NN allele a DT a , , , b SYM b and CC and c SYM c in IN in Db NP Db were VBD be less JJR less than IN than the DT the others NNS other ; : ; and CC and the DT the frequencies NNS frequency of IN of the DT the allele NN allele a DT a , , , c SYM c were VBD be higher JJR high , , , while IN while the DT the allele NN allele b SYM b was VBD be rare JJ rare in IN in Cn NP and CC and Ac JJ . SENT . There EX There were VBD be highly RB highly significant JJ significant differences NNS difference in IN in the DT the genotype NN genotype frequency NN frequency , , , the DT the allele NN allele frequency NN frequency and CC and the DT the heterozygous JJ heterozygous and CC and homozygous JJ homozygous degree NN degree among IN amongst six CD six subspecies NN subspecies . SENT . These DT these differences NNS difference provided VVD provided some DT some genetic JJ genetic clues NNS clue for IN for the DT the discrimination NN discrimination of IN of six CD six subspecies NN subspecies . SENT . A DT a summary NN summary is VBZ be given VVN give for IN for the DT the honey NN honey bee NN bee species NNS specie ( ( ( Apis NP Linnaeus NP ) ) ) indigenous JJ indigenous to TO to India NP India . SENT . Four CD Four indigenous JJ indigenous species NNS specie are VBP be recognized VVN recognize from IN from the DT the region NN region ; : ; Apis NP cerana NP , , , A. NP A. dorsata NP , , , A. NP A. florea NP Florea and CC and A. NP A. andreniformis NN . SENT . All DT all are VBP be commonly RB commonly found VVN find in IN in India NP India except IN except for IN for A. NP A. andreniformis NN , , , which WDT which is VBZ be only RB only known VVN know from IN from a DT a few JJ few specimens NNS specimen collected VVN collect in IN in the DT the northeastern JJ northeastern boundaries NNS boundary of IN of the DT the country NN country . SENT . A DT a dichotomous JJ dichotomous key NN key is VBZ be presented VVN present to TO to aid VV aid the DT the identification NN identification of IN of these DT these species NNS specie and CC and notes NNS note given VVN give on IN on how WRB how to TO to separate VV separate them PP them from IN from the DT the introduced VVN introduce western JJ western honey NN honey bee NN bee , , , A. NP A. mellifera NN . SENT . Chemosensory NP proteins NNS protein ( ( ( CSPs NP ) ) ) are VBP be ubiquitous JJ ubiquitous soluble JJ soluble small JJ small proteins NNS protein isolated VVN isolate from IN from sensory JJ sensory organs NNS organ of IN of a DT a wide JJ wide range NN range of IN of insect NN insect species NNS specie , , , which WDT which are VBP be believed VVN believe to TO to be VB be involved VVN involve in IN in chemical NN chemical communication NN communication . SENT . We PP we report VVP report the DT the cloning VVG clon of IN of a DT a honeybee NN honeybee CSP NN gene NN gene called VVN call ASP3c NP , , , as RB as well RB well as IN as the DT the structural JJ structural and CC and functional JJ functional characterization NN characterization of IN of the DT the encoded VVN encode protein NN protein . SENT . The DT the protein NN protein was VBD be heterologously RB secreted VVN secrete by IN by the DT the yeast NN yeast Pichia NP pastoris NN using VVG use the DT the native JJ native signal NN signal peptide NN peptide . SENT . ASP3c JJ disulfide NN bonds NNS bond were VBD be assigned VVN assign after IN after trypsinolysis NN followed VVN follow by IN by chromatography NN chromatography and CC and mass NN mass spectrometry NN spectrometry combined VVN combine with IN with microsequencing NN . SENT . The DT the pairing VVG pair ( ( ( Cys NP ( ( ( I PP I ) ) ) -Cys NNS ( ( ( II NP II ) ) ) , , , Cys NP ( ( ( III NP III ) ) ) -Cys NNS ( ( ( IV NP IV ) ) ) ) ) ) was VBD be found VVN find to TO to be VB be identical JJ identical to TO to that DT that of IN of Schistocerca NP gregaria NP CSPs NP , , , suggesting VVG suggest that IN that this DT this pattern NN pattern occurs VVZ occur commonly RB commonly throughout IN throughout the DT the insect NN insect CSPs NNS . SENT . CD NP CD measurements NNS measurement revealed VVD reveal that IN that ASP3c NP mainly RB mainly consists VVZ consist of IN of alpha-helices NNS , , , like IN like other JJ other insect NN insect CSPs NNS . SENT . Gel NN gel filtration NN filtration analysis NN analysis showed VVD show that IN that ASP3c NP is VBZ be monomeric JJ monomeric at IN at neutral JJ neutral pH NN pH . SENT . Using VVG use ASA NP ASA , , , a DT a fluorescent JJ fluorescent fatty JJ fatty acid NN acid anthroyloxy NN analogue NN analogue as IN as a DT a probe NN probe , , , ASP3c NP was VBD be shown VVN show to TO to bind NN bind specifically RB specifically to TO to large JJ large fatty JJ fatty acids NNS acid and CC and ester NN ester derivatives NNS derivative , , , which WDT which are VBP be brood NN brood pheromone NN pheromone components NNS component , , , in IN in the DT the micromolar JJ range NN range . SENT . It PP it was VBD be unable JJ unable to TO to bind NN bind tested VVD test general JJ general odorants NNS and CC and other JJ other tested VVN test pheromones NNS pheromone ( ( ( sexual JJ sexual and CC and nonsexual JJ ) ) ) . SENT . This DT this is VBZ be the DT the first JJ first report NN report on IN on a DT a natural JJ natural pheromonal JJ ligand NN ligand bound VVN bind by IN by a DT a recombinant JJ recombinant CSP NN with IN with a DT a measured VVN measured affinity NN affinity constant JJ constant . SENT . The DT the mouthparts NNS mouthpart are VBP be very RB very important JJ important tools NNS tool for IN for almost RB almost any DT any task NN task performed VVN perform by IN by ants NNS ant . SENT . In IN in particular JJ particular , , , the DT the labiomaxillary JJ complex NN complex is VBZ be essential JJ essential for IN for food NN food intake NN intake . SENT . In IN in the DT the present JJ present study NN study we PP we investigated VVD investigate the DT the anatomical JJ anatomical design NN design of IN of the DT the labiomaxillary JJ complex NN complex in IN in various JJ various ant NN ant species NNS specie , , , focusing VVG focus on IN on movement NN movement mechanisms NNS mechanism . SENT . Six CD Six labial NN labial and CC and six CD six maxillary JJ muscles NNS muscle with IN with different JJ different functions NNS function control VVP control the DT the several JJ several joints NNS joint and CC and ensure VV ensure the DT the proper JJ proper performance NN performance of IN of the DT the labiomaxillary JJ complex NN complex . SENT . According VVG accord to TO to our PP$ our measurements NNS measurement of IN of sarcomere JJ lengths NNS length , , , muscle NN muscle fiber NN fibre lengths NNS length and CC and diameters NNS diameter , , , and CC and the DT the relative JJ relative muscle NN muscle volumes NNS volume , , , the DT the labial JJ labial and CC and maxillary JJ muscles NNS muscle feature VVP feature rather RB rather slow VV slow than IN than fast JJ fast muscle NN muscle characteristics NNS characteristic and CC and do VVP do not RB not seem VV seem to TO to be VB be specialized VVN specialize for IN for specific JJ specific tasks NNS task . SENT . Since IN since glossa NN glossa protractor NN protractor muscles NNS muscle are VBP be absent JJ absent , , , the DT the protraction NN protraction of IN of the DT the glossa NN glossa , , , the DT the distal JJ distal end NN end of IN of the DT the labium NN labium , , , is VBZ be a DT a nonmuscular JJ movement NN movement . SENT . By IN by histological JJ histological measurements NNS measurement of IN of hemolymph JJ volumes NNS volume we PP we could MD could exclude VV exclude a DT a pressure NN pressure -driven NN mechanism NN mechanism . SENT . Additional JJ additional experiments NNS experiment showed VVD show that IN that , , , upon IN upon relaxation NN relaxation of IN of the DT the glossa NN glossa retractor NN retractor muscles NNS muscle , , , the DT the glossa NN glossa protracts VVZ protract elastically RB elastically . SENT . This DT this elastic JJ elastic mechanism NN mechanism possibly RB possibly sets VVZ set an DT an upper JJ upper limit NN limit to TO to licking VVG lick frequency NN frequency , , , thus RB thus influencing VVG influence food NN food intake NN intake rates NNS rate and CC and ultimately RB ultimately foraging VVG forage behavior NN behaviour . SENT . In IN in contrast NN contrast to TO to many JJ many other JJ other elastic JJ elastic mechanisms NNS mechanism among IN amongst arthropods NNS arthropod , , , glossa NN glossa protraction NN protraction in IN in ants NNS ant is VBZ be based VVN base on IN on a DT a mechanism NN mechanism where WRB where elasticity NN elasticity works NNS work as IN as an DT an actual JJ actual antagonist NN antagonist to TO to muscles NNS muscle . SENT . We PP we compared VVD compare the DT the design NN design of IN of the DT the labiomaxillary JJ complex NN complex of IN of ants NNS ant with IN with that DT that of IN of the DT the honeybee NN honeybee and CC and suggest VV suggest an DT an elastic JJ elastic mechanism NN mechanism for IN for glossa NN glossa protraction NN protraction in IN in honeybees NNS honeybee as IN as well RB well . SENT . Anarchistic JJ anarchistic behaviour NN behaviour is VBZ be a DT a very RB very rare JJ rare phenotype NN phenotype of IN of honeybee NN honeybee colonies NNS colony . SENT . In IN in an DT an anarchistic JJ anarchistic colony NN colony , , , many JJ many workers NNS worker ' POS ' sons NNS son are VBP be reared VVN rear in IN in the DT the presence NN presence of IN of the DT the queen NN queen . SENT . Anarchy NN anarchy has VHZ have previously RB previously been VBN be described VVN describe in IN in only RB only two CD two Australian JJ Australian colonies NNS colony . SENT . Here RB here we PP we report VVP report on IN on a DT a first JJ first detailed JJ detailed genetic JJ genetic analysis NN analysis of IN of a DT a British JJ British anarchistic JJ anarchistic colony NN colony . SENT . Male JJ male pupae NNS pupa were VBD be present JJ present in IN in great JJ great abundance NN abundance above IN above the DT the queen NN queen excluder NN excluder , , , which WDT which was VBD be clearly RB clearly indicative JJ indicative of IN of extensive JJ extensive worker NN worker reproduction NN reproduction and CC and is VBZ be the DT the hallmark NN hallmark of IN of anarchy NN anarchy . SENT . Seventeen CD Seventeen microsatellite JJ loci NNS locus were VBD be used VVN use to TO to analyse VV analyse these DT these male JJ male pupae NNS pupa , , , allowing VVG allow us PP us to TO to address VV address whether IN whether all PDT all the DT the males NNS male were VBD be indeed RB indeed workers NNS worker ' POS ' sons NNS son , , , and CC and how WRB how many JJ many worker NN worker patrilines NN and CC and individual JJ individual workers NNS worker produced VVD produce them PP them . SENT . In IN in the DT the sample NN sample , , , 95 CD @card@ of IN of 96 CD @card@ of IN of the DT the males NNS male were VBD be definitely RB definitely workers NNS worker ' POS ' sons NNS son . SENT . Given VVN give that IN that apprxeq NP 1 CD 1 % NN % of IN of workers NNS worker ' POS ' sons NNS son were VBD be genetically RB genetically indistinguishable JJ indistinguishable from IN from queen NN queen 's POS 's sons NNS son , , , this DT this suggests VVZ suggest that IN that workers NNS worker do VVP do not RB not move VV move any DT any queen-laid VVN eggs NNS egg between IN between the DT the part NN part of IN of the DT the colony NN colony where WRB where the DT the queen NN queen is VBZ be present JJ present to TO to the DT the area NN area above IN above the DT the queen NN queen excluder NN excluder which WDT which the DT the queen NN queen can MD can not RB not enter VV enter . SENT . The DT the colony NN colony had VHD have 16 CD @card@ patrilines NN , , , with IN with an DT an effective JJ effective number NN number of IN of patrilines NN of IN of 9.85 CD @card@ . SENT . The DT the 75 CD @card@ males NNS male that WDT that could MD could be VB be assigned VVN assign with IN with certainty NN certainty to TO to a DT a patriline NN came VVD come from IN from 7 CD 7 patrilines NN , , , with IN with an DT an effective JJ effective number NN number of IN of 4.21 CD @card@ . SENT . They PP they were VBD be the DT the offspring NN offspring of IN of at IN at least JJS least 19 CD @card@ workers NNS worker . SENT . This DT this is VBZ be in IN in contrast NN contrast to TO to the DT the two CD two previously RB previously studied VVN study Australian JJ Australian naturally RB naturally occurring VVG occur anarchist NN anarchist colonies NNS colony , , , in IN in which WDT which most JJS most of IN of the DT the workers NNS worker ' POS ' sons NNS son were VBD be offspring NN offspring of IN of one CD one patriline NN . SENT . The DT the high JJ high number NN number of IN of patrilines NN producing VVG produce males NNS male leads VVZ lead to TO to a DT a low JJ low mean JJ mean relatedness NN relatedness between IN between laying VVG lay workers NNS worker and CC and males NNS male of IN of the DT the colony NN colony . SENT . We PP we discuss VVP discuss the DT the importance NN importance of IN of studying VVG study such JJ such colonies NNS colony in IN in the DT the understanding NN understanding of IN of worker NN worker policing VVG police and CC and its PP$ its evolution NN evolution . SENT . The DT the efficacy NN efficacy of IN of using VVG use a DT a support NN support pallet NN palette , , , either RB either with IN with or CC or without IN without an DT an insecticide NN insecticide treatment NN treatment , , , and CC and a DT a soil NN soil area NN area application NN application of IN of insecticide NN insecticide was VBD be evaluated VVN evaluate for IN for preventing VVG prevent red JJ red imported JJ imported fire NN fire ant NN ant , , , Solenopsis NP invicta NP Buren NP Buren , , , foraging VVG forage on IN on apiary NN apiary equipment NN equipment . SENT . Four CD Four replicated VVN replicate treatments NNS treatment were VBD be evaluated VVN evaluate : : : 1 LS 1 ) ) ) a DT a single JJ single control NN control pallet NN palette and CC and two CD two beehives NNS beehive ( ( ( hive NN hive bodies NNS body ) ) ) , , , 2 CD 2 ) ) ) support NN support pallet NN palette treated VVN treat with IN with Lorsban-4E NP ( ( ( R NP R ) ) ) ( ( ( active JJ active ingredient NN ingredient chlorpyrifos NNS ) ) ) under IN under a DT a single JJ single pallet NN palette with IN with beehives NNS beehive , , , 3 LS 3 ) ) ) untreated JJ untreated support NN support pallet NN palette with IN with no DT no insecticide NN insecticide application NN application under IN under a DT a single JJ single pallet NN palette with IN with beehives NNS beehive , , , and CC and 4 CD 4 ) ) ) soil NN soil area NN area treatment NN treatment consisted VVD consist of IN of a DT a Lorsban-4E NP ( ( ( R NP R ) ) ) sprayed VVD spray 3m2 JJ area NN area with IN with bee NN bee hives NNS hive on IN on a DT a single JJ single pallet NN palette . SENT . Ant NN ant activity NN activity was VBD be determined VVN determine by IN by placing VVG place several JJ several olive JJ olive oil-soaked JJ oil-soak index NN index cards NNS card ( ( ( 2.54cm2 JJ ) ) ) on IN on or CC or next JJ next to TO to bee NN bee equipment NN equipment for IN for 45 CD @card@ min NN min once IN once each DT each week NN week for IN for six CD six weeks NNS week . SENT . Control NN control and CC and untreated JJ untreated support NN support pallets NNS palette all RB all tested VVD test positive JJ positive for IN for ant NN ant activity NN activity on IN on the DT the equipment NN equipment . SENT . Lorsban NP 4E NP ( ( ( R NP R ) ) ) treated VVD treat support NN support pallets NNS palette and CC and soil NN soil treatments NNS treatment eliminated VVD eliminate ant NN ant activity NN activity on IN on all DT all apiary NN apiary equipment NN equipment for IN for up RB up to TO to six CD six weeks NNS week after IN after insecticide NN insecticide application NN application . SENT . Results NNS result showed VVD show that IN that some DT some vegetation NN vegetation could MD could grow VV grow into IN into natural JJ natural `` `` `` bridges NNS bridge '' '' '' over IN over treated VVN treat pallets NNS palette providing VVG provided ants NNS ant access NN access to TO to apiary NN apiary equipment NN equipment . SENT . These DT these results NNS result have VHP have implications NNS implication for IN for a DT a variety NN variety of IN of quarantined VVN quarantine commodities NNS commodity that WDT that can MD can be VB be stored VVN store on IN on support NN support pallets NNS palette in IN in S. NP S. invicta-infested VVD areas NNS area , , , for IN for example NN example nursery NN nursery stock NN stock , , , hay NN hay bales NNS bale , , , and CC and sod NN sod . SENT . Habituation NN habituation , , , a DT a form NN form of IN of non-associative JJ learning NN learning , , , is VBZ be observed VVN observe throughout IN throughout the DT the animal JJ animal kingdom NN kingdom . SENT . However RB however , , , in IN in contrast NN contrast to TO to associative JJ associative learning NN learning , , , little RB little is VBZ be known VVN know about IN about the DT the underlying JJ underlying molecular JJ molecular mechanisms NNS mechanism . SENT . Using VVG use the DT the appetitive JJ proboscis NN proboscis extension NN extension reflex JJ reflex in IN in honeybees NNS honeybee , , , we PP we show VVP show that IN that the DT the cAMP-dependent JJ protein NN protein kinase NN kinase A NP A ( ( ( PKA NP ) ) ) in IN in the DT the antennal JJ lobe NN lobe ( ( ( AL NP al ) ) ) is VBZ be implicated VVN implicate in IN in the DT the graded VVN grade decline NN decline of IN of behavioral JJ behavioral response NN response during IN during habituation NN habituation . SENT . Repeated JJ repeated stimulation NN stimulation leads VVZ lead to TO to a DT a slow JJ slow and CC and gradual JJ gradual increase NN increase in IN in PKA NP activity NN activity superimposed VVN superimpose on IN on a DT a fast RB fast transient JJ transeunt PKA NP activation NN activation induced VVN induce by IN by each DT each stimulus NN stimulus . SENT . These DT these temporally RB temporally distinct JJ distinct components NNS component of IN of PKA NP activation NN activation are VBP be pharmacologically RB pharmacologically dissectible JJ dissectible and CC and are VBP be restricted VVN restrict to TO to the DT the AL NP al on IN on the DT the stimulated VVN stimulate side NN side . SENT . Whereas IN whereas the DT the transient JJ transeunt PKA NP activation NN activation induced VVN induce by IN by each DT each stimulus NN stimulus requires VVZ require monoaminergic JJ transmission NN transmission , , , the DT the slow JJ slow component NN component of IN of PKA NP activation NN activation is VBZ be mediated VVN mediate by IN by the DT the nitric JJ nitric oxide NN oxide ( ( ( NO UH NO ) ) ) /cGMP JJ system NN system . SENT . Local JJ local manipulation NN manipulation of IN of the DT the slow JJ slow component NN component of IN of PKA NP activation NN activation in IN in single JJ single ALs NPS Als specifically RB specifically interferes VVZ interfere with IN with the DT the dynamic NN dynamic of IN of habituation NN habituation on IN on the DT the corresponding JJ corresponding side NN side . SENT . Our PP$ our results NNS result provide VVP provide strong JJ strong evidence NN evidence that IN that NO/ NP cGMP NN -mediated VVN PKA NP activation NN activation in IN in each DT each AL NP al contributes VVZ contribute to TO to temporal JJ temporal signal NN signal integration NN integration during IN during habituation NN habituation . SENT . Dishabituation NN by IN by a DT a sensory JJ sensory stimulus NN stimulus or CC or spontaneous JJ spontaneous recovery NN recovery from IN from habituation NN habituation does VVZ do not RB not require VV require the DT the PKA NP cascade NN cascade . SENT . This DT this provides VVZ provide evidence NN evidence that IN that the DT the mechanisms NNS mechanism underlying VVG underlie dishabituation NN and CC and spontaneous JJ spontaneous recovery NN recovery differ VVP differ from IN from those DT those underlying JJ underlying temporal JJ temporal signal NN signal integration NN integration during IN during habituation NN habituation of IN of the DT the proboscis NN proboscis extension NN extension response NN response . SENT . The DT the primary JJ primary antennal JJ sensory JJ sensory centers NNS center ( ( ( antennal JJ lobes NNS lobe ) ) ) in IN in the DT the brain NN brain of IN of the DT the honeybee NN honeybee are VBP be highly RB highly compartmentalized VVN compartmentalize into IN into discrete JJ discrete spheres NNS sphere of IN of synaptic JJ synaptic neuropil NN called VVD call glomeruli NNS glomerulus , , , many JJ many of IN of which WDT which can MD can be VB be identified VVN identify according VVG accord to TO to their PP$ their predictable JJ predictable size NN size and CC and location NN location . SENT . Glomeruli NNS glomerulus undergo VVP undergo significant JJ significant changes NNS change in IN in volume NN volume during IN during the DT the lifetime NN lifetime of IN of the DT the adult NN adult worker NN worker bee NN bee , , , at IN at least JJS least some DT some of IN of which WDT which are VBP be activity NN activity dependent JJ dependent . SENT . This DT this study NN study tests VVZ test the DT the commonly RB commonly expressed VVN express assumption NN assumption that IN that increases NNS increase in IN in neuropil JJ volume NN volume are VBP be accompanied VVN accompany by IN by an DT an underlying JJ underlying increase NN increase in IN in the DT the number NN number of IN of synapses NNS synapse present JJ present in IN in the DT the tissue NN toilet . SENT . A DT a combination NN combination of IN of light NN light and CC and electron NN electron microscopy NN microscopy was VBD be used VVN use to TO to determine VV determine total JJ total synapse NN synapse number NN number within IN within two CD two glomeruli NNS glomerulus , , , T1-44 CD and CC and T4-2 CD ( ( ( 1 CD 1 ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the Cavalieri NP Cavalieri direct JJ direct estimator NN estimator of IN of volume NN volume was VBD be applied VVN apply to TO to 1.5 CD @card@ mum JJ mum sections NNS section of IN of resin NN resin -embedded JJ brains NNS brain . SENT . Selected JJ selected sections NNS section were VBD be then RB then re-embedded VVN and CC and prepared VVN prepare for IN for transmission NN transmission electron NN electron microscopy NN microscopy . SENT . Synapse NN synapse densities NNS density were VBD be determined VVN determine using VVG use the DT the physical JJ physical disector NN method NN method on IN on electron NN electron micrographs NNS micrograph . SENT . Synapse NN synapse density NN density and CC and glomerulus NN glomerulus volume NN volume were VBD be combined VVN combine to TO to give VV give an DT an unbiased JJ unbiased estimate NN estimate of IN of the DT the total JJ total number NN number of IN of synapses NNS synapse . SENT . In IN in glomerulus NN glomerulus T1-44 CD , , , a DT a significant JJ significant increase NN increase in IN in volume NN volume was VBD be accompanied VVN accompany by IN by a DT a significant JJ significant increase NN increase in IN in the DT the total JJ total number NN number of IN of synapses NNS synapse . SENT . In IN in contrast NN contrast , , , synapse NN synapse counts NNS count in IN in T4-2 CD ( ( ( 1 LS 1 ) ) ) remained VVD remain unchanged JJ unchanged , , , despite IN despite a DT a significant JJ significant increase NN increase in IN in the DT the volume NN volume of IN of this DT this glomerulus NN glomerulus . SENT . These DT these results NNS result demonstrate VVP demonstrate that DT that synapse NN synapse proliferation NN proliferation in IN in antennal JJ lobes NNS lobe of IN of the DT the adult NN adult worker NN worker bee NN bee is VBZ be highly RB highly site NN site specific NN specific . SENT . Although IN Although volumetric JJ volumetric changes NNS change and CC and changes NNS change in IN in synapse NN synapse number NN number both CC both contribute VV contribute to TO to the DT the structural JJ structural plasticity NN plasticity of IN of the DT the antennal JJ lobes NNS lobe , , , these DT these two CD two components NNS component of IN of plasticity NN plasticity appear VVP appear to TO to be VB be independent JJ independent processes NNS process . SENT . A DT a stepwise-selection NN multivariate NN discriminate JJ discriminate analysis NN analysis was VBD be performed VVN perform using VVG use forewing NN forewing angles NNS angle to TO to discriminate VV discriminate the DT the honey NN honey bee NN bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) samples NNS sample that WDT that were VBD be collected VVN collect from IN from six CD six different JJ different regions NNS region in IN in Turkey NP Turkey . SENT . Eleven NN eleven angles NNS angle of IN of forewing NN forewing venation NN venation , , , A4 JJ A4 , , , B4 NP , , , D7 NP , , , E9 NP , , , G18 NP , , , J10 NP , , , J16 NP , , , K19 NP , , , L13 NP , , , N23 NP and CC and O26 NP were VBD be measured VVN measured biometrically RB biometrically . SENT . Discriminant NN discriminant analysis NN analysis showed VVD show that IN that A4 JJ A4 , , , O26 NP , , , B4 NP , , , D7 NP , , , L13 NP , , , N23 NP and CC and E9 NP angles NNS angle sufficiently RB sufficiently discriminated VVD discriminate the DT the samples NNS sample from IN from different JJ different subspecies NN subspecies of IN of Turkish JJ Turkish honey NN honey bees NNS bee . SENT . The DT the first JJ first three-subset NN out IN out of IN of five CD five canonical JJ canonical discriminant NN discriminant functions NNS function explained VVD explain 96.1 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of total JJ total variations NNS variation . SENT . All DT all samples NNS sample collected VVN collect from IN from central JJ central and CC and north-east JJ Anatolia NP Anatolia regions NNS region were VBD be 100 CD @card@ % NN % correctly RB correctly classified VVN classify into IN into their PP$ their original JJ original regions NNS region . SENT . The DT the samples NNS sample of IN of other JJ other regions NNS region were VBD be overlapped VVN overlap with IN with each DT each other JJ other . SENT . The DT the overall JJ overall percentage NN percentage of IN of cases NNS case classified VVD classify correctly RB correctly was VBD be 88.9 CD @card@ % NN % ( ( ( 32 CD @card@ out RB out of IN of 36 CD @card@ cases NNS case ) ) ) . SENT . In IN in conclusion NN conclusion , , , there EX there are VBP be high JJ high biometrical JJ variations NNS variation between IN between different JJ different regions NNS region of IN of Turkey NP Turkey in IN in terms NNS term of IN of forewing NN forewing angles NNS angle of IN of honey NN honey bees NNS bee and CC and forewing NN forewing angles NNS angle can MD can be VB be used VVN use for IN for discrimination NN discrimination of IN of Turkish JJ Turkish honey NN honey bees NNS bee . SENT . Nuclear NP Nuclear DNA NP DNA PCR-RFLPs NP previously RB previously found VVD find in IN in amplifications NNS amplification of IN of three CD three long JJ long ( ( ( > SYM > 5 CD 5 kbp NN ) ) ) anonymous JJ anonymous regions NNS region of IN of DNA NP DNA were VBD be made VVN make analyzable JJ analysable using VVG use standard JJ standard PCR NP PCR procedures NNS procedure . SENT . RFLP JJ analyses NNS analysis were VBD be simplified VVN simplify by IN by restricting VVG restrict the DT the amplifications NNS amplification to TO to sections NNS section , , , within IN within each DT each locus NN locus , , , that WDT that contained VVD contain most JJS most of IN of the DT the informative JJ informative polymorphic JJ polymorphous sites NNS site . SENT . AluI NP digests VVZ digest of IN of locus NN locus L-1 CD section NN section 2 CD 2 ( ( ( L-1S2 NP ) ) ) revealed VVD reveal three CD three suballeles NNS of IN of which WDT which one PP one was VBD be African-specific JJ ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NP scutellata NP Lepeletier NP ) ) ) and CC and one CD one was VBD be east RB east European-predominant JJ ( ( ( A. NP A. m. NP M. ligustica NP Spinola NP Spinola , , , A. NP A. m. NP M. carnica NP Pollman NP Pollman , , , and CC and A. NP A. m. NP M. caucasica NP Gorbachev NP Gorbachev ) ) ) . SENT . Alleles NNS allele found VVD find originally RB originally at IN at locus NN locus L-2 CD with IN with AvaI NP were VBD be determined VVN determine in IN in RFLP JJ analysis NN analysis of IN of two CD two sections NNS section , , , L-2S1int NP and CC and L-2S2 NP , , , resulting VVG result in IN in two CD two African-specific JJ and CC and two CD two east JJ east European-predominant JJ suballeles NNS . SENT . Suballele JJ identity NN identity was VBD be determined VVN determine by IN by the DT the combination NN combination of IN of banding VVG band patterns NNS pattern from IN from both DT both fragments NNS fragment . SENT . Polymorphisms NNS polymorphism revealed VVD reveal by IN by HaeIII NP in IN in locus NN locus L-2 CD were VBD be analyzed VVN analyse in IN in amplifications NNS amplification and CC and digests NNS digest of IN of L-2S1int NP , , , an DT an 830 CD @card@ bp NN fragment NN fragment within IN within L-2S1 JJ . SENT . Seven CD Seven suballeles NNS were VBD be found VVN find of IN of which WDT which two CD two were VBD be African JJ African -specific NN and CC and three CD three were VBD be east RB east European-specific JJ or CC or predominant JJ predominant , , , including VVG include one CD one suballele NN specific JJ specific to TO to the DT the east JJ east European JJ European subspecies NN subspecies A. NP A. m. JJ caucasica NN . SENT . In IN in locus NN locus L-5 CD , , , RFLPs NP were VBD be detected VVN detect with IN with HaeIII NP , , , DdeI NP , , , and CC and SpeI NP . SENT . HaeIII NP polymorphisms NNS polymorphism were VBD be analyzed VVN analyse by IN by amplification NN amplification and CC and digestion NN digestion of IN of fragments NNS fragment L NP L -5S1xt NN and CC and L-5S1ter NP . SENT . Five CD Five suballeles NNS were VBD be found VVN find of IN of which WDT which three CD three were VBD be African-specific JJ and CC and one CD one east RB east European-predominant JJ . SENT . For IN for DdeI NP , , , all DT all five CD five alleles NNS allele originally RB originally found VVD find with IN with long JJ long PCR NP PCR could MD could be VB be identified VVN identify in IN in RFLP JJ analyses NNS analysis of IN of three CD three sections NNS section . SENT . Two CD Two African-specific JJ , , , one CD one east JJ east European JJ European -specific NN , , , and CC and one CD one west RB west European-predominant JJ ( ( ( A. NP A. m. NP M. mellifera NP L. NP L. and CC and A. NP A. m. NP M. iberica NP Iberica Goetze NP Goetze ) ) ) suballeles NNS were VBD be found VVN find . SENT . A DT a west JJ west European-predominant JJ suballele NN was VBD be also RB also found VVN find in IN in RFLP JJ analysis NN analysis of IN of L-5S3 NP with IN with SpeI NP . SENT . Allele NN allele frequency NN frequency data NNS datum from IN from Old NP Old World NP World and CC and U.S. NP U.S. populations NNS population are VBP be presented VVN present . SENT . Nuclear NP Nuclear DNA NP DNA RFLPs NP between IN between African NP African and CC and European JJ European honey NN honey bees NNS bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. ) ) ) were VBD be sought VVN seek by IN by amplifying VVG amplify short JJ short ( ( ( 1-2 CD @card@ kbp NN ) ) ) and CC and long RB long ( ( ( > SYM > 5 CD 5 kbp NN ) ) ) anonymous JJ anonymous regions NNS region of IN of DNA NN DNA and CC and digesting VVG digest the DT the respective JJ respective PCR NP PCR products NNS product with IN with a DT a collection NN collection of IN of restriction NN restriction enzymes NNS enzyme . SENT . Three CD Three short JJ short and CC and three CD three long JJ long regions NNS region were VBD be each DT each screened VVD screen with IN with 26-31 CD @card@ enzymes NNS enzyme . SENT . From IN from a DT a total NN total of IN of 163 CD @card@ locus NN locus enzyme NN enzyme combinations NNS combination ( ( ( LECs NP ) ) ) , , , seven CD seven revealed VVD reveal informative JJ informative polymorphisms NNS polymorphism . SENT . One CD One of IN of these DT these LECs NN came VVD come from IN from one CD one of IN of the DT the three CD three short JJ short regions NNS region ( ( ( S-3 CD with IN with AluI NP ) ) ) , , , producing VVG produce a DT a total NN total of IN of seven CD seven alleles NNS allele , , , five CD five of IN of which WDT which were VBD be African-specific JJ . SENT . The DT the search NN search for IN for useful JJ useful RFLPs NNS was VBD be far RB far more RBR more effective JJ effective within IN within the DT the long JJ long regions NNS region . SENT . The DT the other JJ other six CD six informative JJ informative LECs NNS came VVD come from IN from the DT the three CD three long JJ long regions NNS region ( ( ( L-1 CD with IN with AluI NP , , , L-2 CD with IN with AvaI NP and CC and HaeIII NP , , , and CC and L-5 CD with IN with HaeIII NP , , , DdeI NP , , , and CC and SpeI NP ) ) ) , , , producing VVG produce a DT a total NN total of IN of 43 CD @card@ alleles NNS allele , , , of IN of which WDT which 18 CD @card@ were VBD be African-specific JJ , , , 13 CD @card@ were VBD be European JJ European -specific NN , , , and CC and two CD two were VBD be predominantly RB predominantly found VVN find in IN in the DT the European JJ European samples NNS sample . SENT . Among IN amongst the DT the European JJ European alleles NNS allele , , , two CD two were VBD be predominantly RB predominantly found VVN find in IN in west JJ west European JJ European honey NN honey bee NN bee subspecies NN subspecies . SENT . Strong JJ strong associations NNS association between IN between alleles NNS allele generated VVN generate by IN by pairs NNS pair of IN of enzymes NNS enzyme at IN at a DT a locus NN locus were VBD be found VVN find . SENT . Flying VVG fly honey NN honey bees NNS bee demonstrate VVP demonstrate highly RB highly variable JJ variable metabolic JJ metabolic rates NNS rate . SENT . The DT the lowest JJS low reported JJ reported values NNS value ( ( ( approximately RB approximately 0.3 CD @card@ W NP W g-1 LS ) ) ) occur VVP occur in IN in tethered JJ tethered bees NNS bee generating VVG generate the DT the minimum JJ minimum lift NN lift to TO to support VV support their PP$ their body NN body weight NN weight , , , free-flying NN free-fly 2 CD 2 -day JJ old JJ old bees NNS bee , , , winter NN winter bees NNS bee , , , or CC or bees NNS bee flying VVG fly at IN at high JJ high air NN air temperatures NNS temperature ( ( ( 45degreeC NP ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the highest JJS high values NNS value ( ( ( approximately RB approximately 0.8 CD @card@ W NP W g-1 LS ) ) ) occur VVP occur in IN in foragers NNS forager that WDT that are VBP be heavily RB heavily loaded VVN loaded or CC or flying VVG fly in IN in low-density NN low-density air NN air . SENT . In IN in different JJ different studies NNS study , , , flight NN flight metabolic JJ metabolic rate NN rate has VHZ have increased VVN increase , , , decreased VVD decrease , , , or CC or remained VVD remain constant JJ constant with IN with air NN air temperature NN temperature . SENT . Current JJ current research NN research collectively RB collectively suggests VVZ suggest that IN that this DT this variation NN variation occurs VVZ occur because IN because flight NN flight metabolic JJ metabolic rates NNS rate decrease VVP decrease at IN at thorax NN thorax temperatures NNS temperature above IN above or CC or below IN below 38degreeC NP . SENT . At IN at 30degreeC NP , , , approximately RB approximately 30 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of colonial JJ colonial energy NN energy is VBZ be spent VVN spend during IN during typical JJ typical foraging VVG forage , , , so RB so variation NN variation in IN in flight NN flight metabolic JJ metabolic rate NN rate can MD can strongly RB strongly affect VV affect colony-level NN energy NN energy balance NN balance . SENT . Higher JJR high air NN air temperatures NNS temperature tend VVP tend to TO to increase VV increase colonial JJ colonial net JJ net gain NN gain rates NNS rate , , , efficiencies NNS efficiency and CC and honey NN honey storage NN storage rates NNS rate due JJ due to TO to lower VV lower metabolic JJ metabolic rates NNS rate during IN during flight NN flight and CC and in IN in the DT the hive NN hive . SENT . Variation NN variation in IN in flight NN flight metabolism NN metabolism has VHZ have a DT a clear JJ clear genetic JJ genetic basis NN basis . SENT . Different JJ different genetic JJ genetic strains NNS strain of IN of honey NN honey bees NNS bee often RB often differ VVP differ in IN in flight NN flight metabolic JJ metabolic rate NN rate , , , and CC and these DT these differences NNS difference in IN in flight NN flight physiology NN physiology can MD can be VB be correlated VVN correlate with IN with foraging VVG forage effort NN effort , , , suggesting VVG suggest a DT a possible JJ possible pathway NN pathway for IN for selection NN selection effects NNS effect on IN on flight NN flight metabolism NN metabolism . SENT . Agriculture NP Agriculture in IN in Australia NP Australia is VBZ be highly RB highly dependent JJ dependent on IN on insect NN insect pollination NN pollination , , , in IN in particular JJ particular from IN from the DT the introduced VVN introduce western JJ western honeybee NN honeybee , , , Apis NP mellifera NN . SENT . Most RBS most agricultural JJ agricultural pollination NN pollination is VBZ be provided VVN provided as IN as an DT an unpaid JJ unpaid service NN service by IN by feral JJ feral A. NP A. mellifera NN and CC and native JJ native insects NNS insect . SENT . A DT a smaller JJR small proportion NN proportion of IN of agricultural JJ agricultural pollination NN pollination is VBZ be provided VVN provided as IN as a DT a paid VVN pay service NN service by IN by beekeepers NNS beekeeper . SENT . Insect NN insect pollination NN pollination is VBZ be threatened VVN threaten by IN by misuse NN misuse of IN of insecticides NNS insecticide and CC and the DT the loss NN loss of IN of remnant JJ remnant vegetation NN vegetation , , , but CC but most RBS most potently RB potently by IN by the DT the likelihood NN likelihood that IN that the DT the honeybee NN honeybee mite NN mite , , , Varroa NP destructor NN destructor , , , will MD will enter VV enter the DT the country NN country . SENT . Now RB now is VBZ be the DT the time NN time to TO to prepare VV prepare for IN for the DT the effect NN effect of IN of these DT these changes NNS change , , , and CC and international JJ international experience NN experience with IN with pollinator NN pollinator decline NN decline should MD should serve VV serve as IN as a DT a guide NN guide . SENT . We PP we need VVP need to TO to protect VV protect and CC and manage VV manage our PP$ our remnant JJ remnant vegetation NN vegetation to TO to protect VV protect wild JJ wild pollinators NNS pollinator . SENT . Insurance NN insurance against IN against declining VVG decline A. NP A. mellifera NN will MD will come VV come through IN through the DT the development NN development of IN of management NN management practices NNS practice for IN for alternative JJ alternative pollinator NN pollinator species NNS specie . SENT . By IN by developing VVG develop native JJ native insects NNS insect as IN as pollinators NNS pollinator we PP we can MD can avoid VV avoid the DT the risks NNS risk associated VVN associate with IN with the DT the importation NN importation of IN of additional JJ additional introduced VVN introduce species NNS specie . SENT . Honey NN honey bees NNS bee from IN from the DT the Primorsky NP region NN region of IN of far-eastern JJ Russia NP Russia were VBD be evaluated VVN evaluate for IN for their PP$ their resistance NN resistance to TO to Acarapis NP woodi NNS . SENT . Results NNS result from IN from a DT a field NN field test NN test in IN in Louisiana NP Louisiana showed VVD show that DT that Primorsky NP honey NN honey bees NNS bee showed VVD show strong JJ strong resistance NN resistance to TO to tracheal JJ tracheal mites NNS mite . SENT . The DT the Primorsky NP honey NN honey bees NNS bee maintained VVD maintain nearly RB nearly mite-free JJ colonies NNS colony throughout IN throughout the DT the experiment NN experiment while IN while the DT the domestic JJ domestic stocks NNS stock were VBD be ultimately RB ultimately parasitized VVN parasitize by IN by high JJ high levels NNS level of IN of tracheal JJ tracheal mites NNS mite . SENT . We PP we examined VVD examine the DT the distribution NN distribution of IN of Varroa NP destructor NN destructor on IN on worker NN worker and CC and queen NN queen brood NN brood in IN in colonies NNS colony of IN of A. NP A. mellifera NN . SENT . With IN with both DT both worker NN worker and CC and queen NN queen hosts NNS host present JJ present , , , the DT the mite NN mite prevalence NN prevalence value NN value for IN for worker NN worker hosts NNS host was VBD be 75.0+-4.0 CD % NN % ( ( ( lsmean+-SE VV ) ) ) , , , compared VVN compare to TO to 5.1+-4.0 CD % NN % for IN for queen NN queen hosts NNS host ( ( ( P NN P < SYM < 0.0001 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . We PP we also RB also examined VVD examine the DT the response NN response of IN of mites NNS mite to TO to cuticular JJ cuticular extracts VVZ extract of IN of 5th JJ 5th instar NN instar worker NN worker and CC and queen NN queen larvae NNS larva using VVG use arrestment NN arrestment bioassays NNS bioassay . SENT . In IN in binary-choice NN tests NNS test at IN at 0.5 CD @card@ larval JJ larval equivalents NNS equivalent ( ( ( Leq NP ) ) ) , , , worker NN worker extract NN extract arrested VVN arrest 84.79+-4.98 CD % NN % of IN of the DT the mites NNS mite , , , while IN while queen NN queen extract NN extract arrested VVN arrest 15.21+-4.98 CD % NN % ( ( ( P NN P < SYM < 0.0001 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . At IN at 0.8 CD @card@ Leq NP , , , worker NN worker extract NN extract arrested VVN arrest 89.75+-4.98 CD % NN % , , , while IN while queen NN queen extract NN extract arrested VVN arrest 10.25+-4.98 CD % NN % ( ( ( P NN P < SYM < 0.0001 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . We PP we also RB also measured VVD measured the DT the repellent JJ repellent activity NN activity of IN of royal JJ royal jelly NN jelly extract NN extract in IN in a DT a repellent JJ repellent bioassay NN bioassay . SENT . Royal NP Royal jelly NN jelly extract NN extract repelled VVD repel 78.5+-2.6 CD % NN % of IN of mites NNS mite at IN at 5 CD 5 mg NN mg royal JJ royal jelly NN jelly equivalents NNS equivalent ( ( ( Rjeq NP ) ) ) ; : ; 85.6+-3.7 CD % NN % at IN at 10 CD @card@ mg NN mg Rjeq NP ; : ; and CC and 89.2+-3.8 CD % NN % at IN at 20 CD @card@ mg NN mg Rjeq NP . SENT . The DT the response NN response at IN at each DT each dose NN dose was VBD be greater JJR great than IN than the DT the 10.5+-2.9 CD % NN % mites NNS mite repelled VVN repel by IN by solvent JJ solvent controls NNS control ( ( ( P NN P < SYM < 0.0001 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . Our PP$ our findings NNS finding suggest VVP suggest that IN that the DT the low JJ low incidence NN incidence of IN of mites NNS mite in IN in queen NN queen brood NN brood is VBZ be due JJ due , , , in IN in part NN part , , , to TO to the DT the repellent JJ repellent activity NN activity of IN of royal JJ royal jelly NN jelly , , , and CC and possibly RB possibly to TO to intrinsic JJ intrinsic differences NNS difference between IN between larval JJ larval chemistries NNS chemistry . SENT . This DT this study NN study examined VVD examine how WRB how a DT a honey NN honey bee NN bee colony NN colony supplied VVD supply additional JJ additional labor NN labour for IN for a DT a foraging VVG forage task NN task , , , pollen NN pollen collection NN collection , , , when WRB when the DT the demand NN demand for IN for this DT this task NN task was VBD be increased VVN increase . SENT . When WRB when we PP we experimentally RB experimentally raised VVD raise a DT a colony NN colony 's POS 's pollen NN pollen need NN need from IN from one CD one day NN day to TO to the DT the next JJ next , , , we PP we found VVD find that IN that the DT the colony NN colony boosted VVD boost the DT the labor NN labour devoted VVN devote to TO to pollen NN pollen collecting VVG collect ( ( ( measured VVN measured in IN in terms NNS term of IN of the DT the number NN number of IN of pollen NN pollen collection NN collection trips NNS trip per IN per day NN day , , , P NN P ) ) ) by IN by a DT a factor NN factor of IN of 24.8 CD @card@ . SENT . The DT the number NN number of IN of pollen NN pollen foragers NNS forager ( ( ( N NP N ) ) ) was VBD be increased VVN increase ( ( ( by IN by recruiting NN recruiting and CC and task NN task switching NN switching ) ) ) by IN by a DT a factor NN factor of IN of 12.4 CD @card@ , , , while IN while the DT the number NN number of IN of collecting VVG collect trips NNS trip per IN per pollen NN pollen forager NN forager per IN per day NN day ( ( ( T NN T ) ) ) was VBD be increased VVN increase by IN by a DT a factor NN factor of IN of 2.0 CD @card@ ( ( ( note NN note that IN that P=NXT NP ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the increase NN increase in IN in number NN number of IN of pollen NN pollen foragers NNS forager was VBD be produced VVN produce mostly RB mostly ( ( ( 73 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) by IN by the DT the recruiting NN recruiting of IN of non JJ non -foragers NNS to TO to the DT the task NN task and CC and to TO to a DT a smaller JJR small extent NN extent ( ( ( 27 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) by IN by the DT the switching NN switching of IN of non-pollen NN foragers NNS forager to TO to the DT the task NN task . SENT . Varroa NP destructor NN destructor resistance NN resistance to TO to pyrethroids NNS has VHZ have been VBN be reported VVN report in IN in mainland JJ mainland Europe NP Europe since IN since the DT the early JJ early 1990 CD @card@ 's POS 's . SENT . V. CC v. destructor NN destructor was VBD be first RB first detected VVN detect in IN in the DT the UK NP UK in IN in 1992 CD @card@ and CC and since RB since then RB then there EX there has VHZ have been VBN be widespread JJ widespread use NN use of IN of the DT the only JJ only two CD two authorised VVD authorize pyrethroid JJ treatments NNS treatment . SENT . A DT a routine JJ routine national JJ national screening NN screening programme NN programme for IN for resistance NN resistance to TO to pyrethroids NNS was VBD be established VVN establish in IN in 2000 CD @card@ and CC and in IN in August NP August 2001 CD @card@ resistance NN resistance was VBD be detected VVN detect in IN in southwest JJ southwest England NP England . SENT . The DT the resistance NN resistance outbreak NN outbreak was VBD be limited VVN limited to TO to 25 CD @card@ apiaries NNS apiary , , , was VBD be associated VVN associate with IN with product NN product misuse NN misuse , , , and CC and the DT the resistance NN resistance factors NNS factor to TO to fluvalinate NN and CC and flumethrin NN were VBD be approximately RB approximately 10 CD @card@ fold VV fold when WRB when compared VVN compare to TO to susceptible JJ susceptible mites NNS mite . SENT . There EX There was VBD be no DT no cross-resistance NN with IN with amitraz NN , , , coumaphos NNS or CC or cymiazole NN . SENT . This DT this level NN level of IN of resistance NN resistance is VBZ be far RB far lower JJR low than IN than that WDT that detected VVD detect following VVG follow widespread JJ widespread colony NN colony collapse NN collapse in IN in Italy NP Italy and CC and highlights VVZ highlight the DT the importance NN importance of IN of the DT the correct JJ correct use NN use of IN of varroacides NNS and CC and of IN of early JJ early detection NN detection of IN of resistance NN resistance to TO to enable VV enable its PP$ its control NN control . SENT . Please UH Please note VVP note that WDT that on IN on page NN page 117 CD @card@ ( ( ( Journal NN journal of IN of Apicultural JJ apicultural Research NP Research 38 CD @card@ ( ( ( 3-4 CD @card@ ) ) ) : : : 117 CD @card@ -123 CD @card@ ) ) ) , , , Summary NN summary , , , should MD should read VV read : : : `` `` `` In IN in queenless JJ ( ( ( not RB not queenright JJ as IN as printed JJ printed ) ) ) colonies NNS colony , , , larvae NNS larva of IN of all DT all ages NNS age received VVD receive 124 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of the DT the nourishment NN nourishment received VVD receive in IN in queenright NN ( ( ( not RB not queenless JJ as IN as printed JJ printed ) ) ) colonies NNS colony . SENT . '' '' '' And CC and : : : `` `` `` In IN in queenless JJ ( ( ( not RB not queenright JJ as IN as printed JJ printed ) ) ) colonies NNS colony , , , larvae NNS larva of IN of all DT all ages NNS age received VVD receive 175 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of the DT the nourishment NN nourishment in IN in queenright NN ( ( ( not RB not queenless JJ as IN as printed JJ printed ) ) ) colonies NNS colony . SENT . '' '' '' To TO To determine VV determine the DT the tendency NN tendency and CC and phenology NN phenology of IN of reproductive JJ reproductive swarming VVG swarm and CC and migration NN migration of IN of the DT the honey NN honey bee NN bee populations NNS population of IN of Ethiopia NP Ethiopia , , , 240 CD @card@ beekeepers NNS beekeeper from IN from 57 CD @card@ localities NNS locality representing VVG represent different JJ different ecological JJ ecological areas NNS area of IN of the DT the country NN country were VBD be interviewed VVN interview based VVN base on IN on a DT a pre-structured JJ questionnaire NN questionnaire . SENT . Extent NN extent of IN of reproductive JJ reproductive swarming VVG swarm and CC and migration NN migration , , , number NN number of IN of swarms NNS swarm per IN per colony NN colony , , , occupation NN occupation rate NN rate of IN of bait NN bait hives NNS hive and CC and periods NNS period of IN of swarming VVG swarm and CC and migration NN migration were VBD be assessed VVN assess for IN for about RB about 3000 CD @card@ honey NN honey bee NN bee colonies NNS colony . SENT . Significantly RB significantly high RB high reproductive JJ reproductive swarming VVG swarm proportions NNS proportion were VBD be noted VVN note for IN for Apis NP mellifera NN jemenitica NN and CC and A. NP A. m. JJ scutellata NN , , , and CC and low JJ low proportions NNS proportion for IN for A. NP A. m. JJ bandasii NNS , , , A. LS A. m. JJ woyi NN -gambella NN and CC and A. NP A. m. JJ monticola NN . SENT . Temporal JJ temporal distribution NN distribution of IN of swarming VVG swarm varies VVZ vary both DT both within IN within and CC and between IN between subspecies NN subspecies and CC and is VBZ be related VVN relate to TO to physiographic JJ physiographic and CC and climatic JJ climatic factors NNS factor of IN of the DT the areas NNS area . SENT . The DT the proportions NNS proportion of IN of migrated VVN migrate colonies NNS colony differed VVD differ significantly RB significantly among IN amongst the DT the five CD five subspecies NN subspecies and CC and resource NN resource depletion NN depletion was VBD be the DT the most RBS most persistent JJ persistent factor NN factor associated VVN associate with IN with migration NN migration . SENT . Honey NN honey bees NNS bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) and CC and bumble VV bumble bees NNS bee ( ( ( Bombus NP impatiens NN impatiens ) ) ) were VBD be compared VVN compare for IN for three CD three aspects NNS aspect of IN of pollinating VVG pollinate behaviour NN behaviour on IN on field-grown VVN cucumber NN cucumber ( ( ( Cucumis NP sativus NN ) ) ) and CC and watermelon NN watermelon ( ( ( Citrullus NP lanatus NN ) ) ) . SENT . We PP we measured VVD measured : : : ( ( ( 1 LS 1 ) ) ) , , , diurnal JJ diurnal for-aging VVG activity NN activity periods NNS period ( ( ( as RB as related VVN relate to TO to anthesis NN anthesis ) ) ) ; : ; ( ( ( 2 LS 2 ) ) ) , , , floral JJ floral visitation NN visitation rates NNS rate ( ( ( number NN number of IN of flowers NNS flower visited VVD visit per IN per min NN min by IN by individual JJ individual foragers NNS forager ) ) ) ; : ; and CC and ( ( ( 3 LS 3 ) ) ) , , , stigmatic JJ stigmatic pollen NN pollen deposition NN deposition ( ( ( number NN number of IN of pollen NN pollen grains NNS grain deposited VVN deposit on IN on stigmas NNS stigma after IN after single JJ single bee NN bee visits NNS visit to TO to female JJ female flowers NNS flower ) ) ) . SENT . B. NP B. impatiens NN impatiens was VBD be more RBR more effective JJ effective than IN than A. NP A. mellifera NN for IN for all DT all three CD three parameters NNS parameter on IN on both DT both crops NNS crop . SENT . B. NP B. impatiens NN impatiens initiated VVD initiate foraging VVG forage activity NN activity 15-40 CD @card@ min NN min before IN before A. NP A. mellifera NN ; : ; both DT both species NN species continued VVD continue foraging VVG forage until IN until flowers NNS flower closed VVD close in IN in early JJ early afternoon NN afternoon . SENT . B. NP B. impatiens NN impatiens consistently RB consistently visited VVD visit more JJR more flowers NNS flower per IN per min NP min ( ( ( P NN P < SYM < 0.001 CD @card@ ) ) ) and CC and deposited VVD deposit equal JJ equal or CC or greater JJR great amounts NNS amount of IN of pollen NN pollen ( ( ( P NN P < SYM < 0.001 CD @card@ ) ) ) than IN than A. NP A. mellifera NN , , , particularly RB particularly during IN during the DT the initial JJ initial hours NNS hour of IN of floral JJ floral anthesis NN anthesis which WDT which is VBZ be when WRB when these DT these crops NNS crop are VBP be most RBS most receptive JJ receptive to TO to pollination NN pollination . SENT . The DT the data NNS datum additionally RB additionally suggest VVP suggest that IN that researchers NNS researcher evaluating VVG evaluate different JJ different pollinator NN pollinator candidates NNS candidate should MD should consider VV consider time-of-day NN time-of-day effects NNS effect when WRB when comparing VVG compare pollen NN pollen deposition NN deposition rates NNS rate between IN between pollinators NNS pollinator , , , as IN as time-of-day NN time-of-day had VHD have a DT a marked JJ marked influence NN influence on IN on pollen NN pollen deposition NN deposition in IN in these DT these studies NNS study . SENT . Honey NN honey bee NN bee semen NN semen was VBD be stored VVN store in IN in green JJ green coconut NN coconut ( ( ( Cocos NP Cocos nucifera NP L. NP L. ) ) ) water NN water plus CC plus dihydrostreptomycin NN and CC and in IN in commercial JJ commercial tissue NN toilet culture NN culture media NNS medium at IN at different JJ different temperatures NNS temperature . SENT . Glass NP Glass capillary JJ capillary microtubes NNS of IN of 0.1cm NN diameter NN diameter and CC and centrifuge NN centrifuge microtubes NNS 0.2ml NN capacity NN capacity were VBD be used VVN use for IN for semen NN semen storage NN storage . SENT . Sperm NN sperm motility NN motility was VBD be assessed VVN assess after IN after 1 CD 1 , , , 2 CD 2 , , , 5 CD 5 , , , 10 CD @card@ , , , 15 CD @card@ , , , 30 CD @card@ , , , 50 CD @card@ , , , 80 CD @card@ and CC and 120 CD @card@ days NNS day . SENT . Queens NP Queens were VBD be instrumentally RB instrumentally inseminated VVN inseminate with IN with diluted JJ diluted semen NN semen and CC and their PP$ their laying VVG lay behavior NN behaviour evaluated VVD evaluate . SENT . Storage NN storage in IN in coconut JJ coconut water NN water shows NNS show living VVG live sperm NN sperm until IN until 80 CD @card@ days NNS day . SENT . However RB however , , , the DT the queen NN queen 's VBZ be laying VVG lay was VBD be normal JJ normal and CC and resulted VVN result in IN in viable JJ viable worker NN worker brood NN brood only RB only when WRB when semen NN semen stored VVD store up RP up to TO to 15 CD @card@ days NNS day in IN in coconut JJ coconut water NN water medium NN medium was VBD be used VVN use for IN for insemination NN insemination . SENT . Coconut JJ coconut water NN water seems VVZ seem to TO to be VB be an DT an ideal JJ ideal natural JJ natural diluent NN diluent for IN for short JJ short periods NNS period in IN in vitro NN storage NN storage of IN of honey NN honey bee NN bee semen NN semen and CC and can MD can be VB be an DT an appropriate JJ appropriate method NN method for IN for genetic JJ genetic improvement NN improvement programmes NNS programme for IN for honey NN honey bees NNS bee . SENT . Some DT some colonies NNS colony of IN of Apis NP mellifera NN bees NNS bee produce VVP produce much RB much more JJR more propolis NN propolis than IN than others NNS other , , , a DT a trait NN trait that WDT that could MD could be VB be under IN under genetic JJ genetic control NN control . SENT . This DT this possibility NN possibility was VBD be investigated VVN investigate in IN in an DT an experiment NN experiment carried VVD carry out RP out from IN from April NP April to TO to July NP July 1999 CD @card@ , , , in IN in the DT the `` `` `` cerrado JJ '' '' '' forest NN forest reserve NN reserve Pe NN pe de IN de Gigante NP Gigante , , , Santa NP Santa Rita NP Rita de FW de Passa NP Quatro NP , , , Sao NP Sao Paulo NP Paulo State NP State , , , Brazil NP Brazil . SENT . The DT the objective NN objective was VBD be to TO to begin VV begin a DT a genetic JJ genetic breeding NN breeding program NN programme of IN of bees NNS bee to TO to improve VV improve propolis NN propolis production NN production and CC and verify VV verify the DT the correlation NN correlation between IN between propolis NN propolis and CC and honey NN honey production NN production . SENT . In IN in seven CD seven apiaries NNS apiary , , , 100 CD @card@ colonies NNS colony of IN of Africanized VVN Africanize honeybees NNS honeybee originating VVG originate in IN in swarms NNS swarm and CC and captured VVN capture in IN in forest NN forest reserve NN reserve `` `` `` Pe NN pe de IN de Gigante NP Gigante '' '' '' were VBD be used VVN use . SENT . Kruskal-Wallis NP and CC and Mann-Whitney NP tests NNS test were VBD be used VVN use . SENT . The DT the propolis NN propolis was VBD be collected VVN collect in IN in an DT an Apis NP Flora NP Flora collector NN collector . SENT . Only RB only 25 CD @card@ colonies NNS colony produced VVD produce propolis NN propolis , , , 87.45g JJ on IN on average NN average , , , while IN while the DT the other JJ other 75 CD @card@ colonies NNS colony did VVD do not RB not produce VV produce propolis NN propolis . SENT . The DT the colonies NNS colony , , , producers NNS producer of IN of propolis NN propolis were VBD be better RBR better ( ( ( P NN P < SYM < 0.001 CD @card@ ) ) ) in IN in honey NN honey production NN production , , , with IN with an DT an average NN average of IN of 26.98 CD @card@ kg/colony NN vs NP vs 13.93 CD @card@ kg/colony NN for IN for non-propolised JJ colonies NNS colony . SENT . A DT a positive JJ positive correlation NN correlation between IN between propolis NN propolis and CC and honey NN honey production NN production with IN with r=0.422 NN and CC and P=0.00001256 NP was VBD be found VVN find , , , showing VVG show that IN that the DT the bees NNS bee that WDT that produced VVD produce more JJR more propolis NN propolis also RB also produced VVD produce more JJR more honey NN honey . SENT . The DT the results NNS result show VVP show that IN that it PP it is VBZ be possible JJ possible to TO to select VV select bees NNS bee for IN for an DT an increase NN increase of IN of propolis NN propolis production NN production and CC and improve VV improve the DT the honey NN honey productivity NN productivity . SENT . High JJ high temperature NN temperature high JJ high resolution NN resolution gas NN gas chromatography NN chromatography coupled VVN couple to TO to mass JJ mass spectrometry NN spectrometry ( ( ( HT-HRGC-MS NP ) ) ) is VBZ be a DT a powerful JJ powerful analytical JJ analytic tool NN tool . SENT . In IN in this DT this work NN work we PP we applied VVD apply this DT this technique NN technique to TO to the DT the study NN study of IN of crude NN crude extracts VVZ extract of IN of propolis NN propolis collected VVN collect near IN near the DT the city NN city of IN of Uberlandia NP Uberlandia - : - Minas NP Minas Gerais NP Gerais State NP State . SENT . Eucalyptus NN eucalyptus trees NNS tree and CC and native JJ native plants NNS plant from IN from `` `` `` cerrado NP '' '' '' ( ( ( savannah NN savanna ) ) ) were VBD be the DT the material NN material sources NNS source disposable JJ disposable for IN for the DT the Apis NP mellifera NN bees NNS bee . SENT . A DT a lot NN lot of IN of known VVN know propolis NN propolis constituents NNS constituent were VBD be identified VVN identify , , , however RB however , , , several JJ several high JJ high molecular JJ molecular weight NN weight compounds NNS compound including VVG include lupeol JJ alkanoates NNS were VBD be identified VVN identify for IN for first JJ first time NN time in IN in propolis NN propolis . SENT . A DT a peptide NN peptide named VVN name apisimin NN was VBD be found VVN find in IN in honeybee NN honeybee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. ) ) ) royal NN royal jelly NN jelly ( ( ( RJ NP RJ ) ) ) . SENT . N-terminal NN sequencing NP sequencing showed VVD show that IN that this DT this peptide NN peptide corresponded VVD correspond to TO to the DT the sequence NN sequence of IN of a DT a cDNA NN clone NN clone isolated VVN isolate from IN from an DT an expression NN expression cDNA NN library NN library prepared VVN prepare from IN from heads NNS head of IN of nurse NN nurse honeybees NNS honeybee . SENT . No DT no homology NN homology was VBD be found VVN find between IN between the DT the protein NN protein sequence NN sequence of IN of apisimin NN with IN with a DT a molecular JJ molecular mass NN mass of IN of 5540.4 CD @card@ Da NP Da and CC and sequences NNS sequence deposited VVN deposit in IN in the DT the Swiss-Prot NP database NN database . SENT . The DT the 54 CD @card@ amino NN amino acids NNS acid of IN of apisimin NN do VVP do not RB not include VV include Cys NP , , , Met NP Met , , , Pro NP Pro , , , Arg NP , , , His PP$ his , , , Tyr NP , , , and CC and Trp NP residues NNS residue . SENT . The DT the peptide NN peptide shows VVZ show a DT a well-defined JJ well-define secondary JJ secondary structure NN structure as RB as observed VVD observe by IN by CD NN CD spectroscopy NN spectroscopy , , , and CC and has VHZ have the DT the tendency NN tendency to TO to form VV form oligomers NNS . SENT . Isoelectrofocusing NP showed VVD show apisimin NN to TO to be VB be an DT an acidic JJ acidic peptide NN peptide . SENT . We PP we investigated VVD investigate pattern NN pattern discrimination NN discrimination by IN by worker NN worker honeybees NNS honeybee , , , Apis NP mellifera NN , , , focusing VVG focus on IN on the DT the roles NNS role of IN of spectral JJ spectral cues NNS cue and CC and the DT the angular JJ angular size NN size of IN of patterns NNS pattern , , , Free-flying NN free-fly bees NNS bee were VBD be trained VVN train to TO to discriminate JJ discriminate concentric JJ concentric patterns NNS pattern in IN in a DT a Y NN Y -maze NN . SENT . The DT the rewarded VVN reward pattern NN pattern could MD could be VB be composed VVN compose of IN of either RB either a DT a cyan NN cyan and CC and a DT a yellow JJ yellow colour NN colour , , , which WDT which presented VVD present both DT both different JJ different chromatic JJ chromatic and CC and achromatic JJ achromatic L NP L -receptor NN contrast NN contrast , , , or CC or an DT an orange NN orange and CC and a DT a blue JJ blue colour NN colour , , , which WDT which presented VVD present different JJ different chromatic JJ chromatic cues NNS cue , , , but CC but the DT the same JJ same L-receptor NN contrast NN contrast . SENT . The DT the non JJ non -rewarded JJ alternative NN alternative was VBD be either RB either a DT a single-coloured JJ disc NN disc with IN with the DT the colour NN colour of IN of the DT the central JJ central disc NN disc or CC or the DT the surrounding VVG surround ring NN ring of IN of the DT the pattern NN pattern , , , a DT a checkerboard NN checkerboard pattern NN pattern with IN with non-resolvable JJ squares NNS square , , , the DT the reversed JJ reversed pattern NN pattern , , , or CC or the DT the elements NNS element of IN of the DT the training NN training pattern NN pattern ( ( ( disc NN disc or CC or ring VVP ring alone RB alone ) ) ) . SENT . Bees NNS bee resolved VVN resolve and CC and learned VVN learn both DT both colour NN colour elements NNS element in IN in the DT the rewarded VVN reward patterns NNS pattern and CC and their PP$ their spatial JJ spatial properties NNS property . SENT . When WRB when the DT the patterns NNS pattern subtended VVD subtend large JJ large visual JJ visual angles NNS angle , , , this DT this discrimination NN discrimination used VVD use chromatic JJ chromatic cues NNS cue only RB only . SENT . Patterns NNS pattern with IN with yellow JJ yellow or CC or orange JJ orange central JJ central discs NNS disc were VBD be generalised VVN generalize toward IN toward the DT the yellow JJ yellow and CC and orange JJ orange colours NNS colour , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . When WRB when the DT the patterns NNS pattern subtended VVD subtend a DT a visual JJ visual angle NN angle close NN close to TO to the DT the detection NN detection limit NN limit and CC and L-receptor NN contrast NN contrast was VBD be mediating VVG mediate discrimination NN discrimination , , , pattern NN pattern perception NN perception was VBD be reduced VVN reduce : : : bees NNS bee perceived VVN perceive only RB only the DT the pattern NN pattern element NN element with IN with higher JJR high contrast NN contrast . SENT . In IN in honeybee NN honeybee colonies NNS colony , , , guards NNS guard protect VV protect their PP$ their nest NN nest from IN from various JJ various robbers NNS robber including VVG include bees NNS bee from IN from other JJ other colonies NNS colony . SENT . Infrared JJ infrared thermography NN thermography showed VVD show that IN that the DT the guards NNS guard and CC and the DT the bees NNS bee examined VVD examine by IN by them PP them ( ( ( examinees NNS examinee ) ) ) differ VVP differ considerably RB considerably in IN in their PP$ their thermal JJ thermal behaviour NN behaviour according VVG accord to TO to their PP$ their particular JJ particular role NN role in IN in the DT the nestmate JJ recognition NN recognition process NN process . SENT . The DT the thorax NN thorax surface NN surface temperature NN temperature was VBD be on IN on average JJ average higher JJR high and CC and more RBR more variable JJ variable in IN in the DT the examinees NNS examinee ( ( ( 36.1 CD @card@ degreeC NN , , , S.D.=4.14 NP , , , N=1545 NP , , , 303 CD @card@ bees NNS bee ) ) ) than IN than in IN in the DT the guards NNS guard ( ( ( 34.0 CD @card@ degreeC NN , , , S.D.=2.00 NP , , , N=1681 JJ , , , 772 CD @card@ bees NNS bee ) ) ) . SENT . During IN during thorough JJ thorough examinations NNS examination lasting VVG last longer RBR long than IN than 30 CD @card@ s VVZ s , , , more JJR more than IN than 60 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of the DT the examinees NNS examinee showed VVD show phases NNS phase of IN of intense JJ intense thoracic JJ thoracic heating NN heating of IN of more JJR more than IN than 2 CD 2 degreeC NN ( ( ( maximum JJ maximum temperature NN temperature 48.5 CD @card@ degreeC NN ) ) ) , , , whereas IN whereas most JJS most guards NNS guard cooled VVN cool down RP down . SENT . Our PP$ our data NNS datum suggest VVP suggest that IN that these DT these examinees NNS examinee heat NN heat up IN up their PP$ their surface NN surface to TO to enhance VV enhance chemical NN chemical signalling VVG signal during IN during examinations NNS examination . SENT . Variability NN variability of IN of the DT the cell NN cell size NN size and CC and symmetry NN symmetry in IN in the DT the honeycombs NNS honeycomb has VHZ have been VBN be studied VVN study . SENT . The DT the distance NN distance between IN between opposite JJ opposite corners NNS corner of IN of cells NNS cell varies VVZ vary from IN from 4.1 CD @card@ to TO to 7.7 CD @card@ mm NN ( ( ( mostly RB mostly 5.0-5.5 CD @card@ and CC and 6.1-7.0 CD @card@ mm NN ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the asymmetry NN asymmetry of IN of cells NNS cell grows VVZ grow in IN in parallel NN parallel to TO to increase VV increase of IN of their PP$ their size NN size . SENT . The DT the size NN size and CC and asymmetry NN asymmetry of IN of cells NNS cell depend VVP depend on IN on the DT the space NN space of IN of the DT the nest NN nest , , , thus RB thus manifesting VVG manifest the DT the ability NN ability of IN of honey NN honey bees NNS bee to TO to control VV control the DT the size NN size of IN of their PP$ their nest NN nest . SENT . The DT the mechanism NN mechanism of IN of control NN control of IN of both PDT both the DT the nest NN nest size NN size and CC and empty JJ empty space NN space inside IN inside it PP it is VBZ be associated VVN associate with IN with physiological JJ physiological evaluation NN evaluation of IN of the DT the energy NN energy expenditure NN expenditure by IN by leg NN leg muscles NNS muscle . SENT . A DT a relatively RB relatively low JJ low diversity NN diversity of IN of bee NN bee pollinators NNS pollinator was VBD be sampled VVN sample from IN from a DT a fruit NN fruit orchard NN orchard in IN in the DT the Central NP Central Plateau NN plateau of IN of Mexico NP Mexico . SENT . The DT the effect NN effect of IN of agricultural JJ agricultural practices NNS practice that WDT that have VHP have occurred VVN occur in IN in the DT the region NN region for IN for the DT the last JJ last 2 CD 2 , , , 000 CD @card@ years NNS year was VBD be discussed VVN discuss and CC and recommendations NNS recommendation for IN for future JJ future research NN research were VBD be given VVN give . SENT . Search NN search for IN for alternative JJ alternative flora NN flora competing VVG compete with IN with sunflower NN sunflower for IN for foraging VVG forage of IN of honeybees NNS honeybee indicated VVN indicate that IN that the DT the mustard NN mustard was VBD be most RBS most competitive JJ competitive flora NN flora with IN with sunflower NN sunflower , , , on IN on an DT an average JJ average 6.21 CD @card@ bee NN bee visited/minute/m2 JJ area NN area while IN while the DT the least JJS least prefered JJ flora NN flora was VBD be maize NN maize where WRB where 0.66 CD @card@ bee NN bee visited/minute/m2 NN area NN area . SENT . The DT the maximum JJ maximum number NN number of IN of bee NN bee visits NNS visit were VBD be 5.87/minute/m2 JJ area NN area at IN at 12.00 CD @card@ noon NN noon while IN while the DT the least JJS least number NN number of IN of bee NN bee visits NNS visit were VBD be 3.44/minute/m2 JJ area NN area at IN at 4.00 CD @card@ P.M RB p.m . SENT . Very RB very little RB little is VBZ be known VVN know about IN about the DT the rate NN rate at IN at which WDT which pollen NN pollen grains NNS grain are VBP be mobilized VVN mobilize within IN within insect-pollinated VVN crop NN crop systems NNS system , , , and CC and this DT this is VBZ be especially RB especially true JJ true the DT the for IN for commercial JJ commercial production NN production of IN of field-grown VVN cucumber NN cucumber ( ( ( Cucumis NP sativus NP L. NP L. ) ) ) , , , monoecious JJ monoecious muskmelon NN muskmelon ( ( ( Cucumis NP melo NP Melo L. NP L. ) ) ) , , , and CC and triploid JJ triploid watermelon NN watermelon ( ( ( Citrullus NP lanatus NP ( ( ( Thunb NP . SENT . ) ) ) Matsum. NP & CC & Nakai NP Nakai ) ) ) . SENT . The DT the rates NNS rate of IN of pollen NN pollen depletion NN depletion for IN for these DT these crops NNS crop were VBD be therefore RB therefore investigated VVN investigate on IN on plots NNS plot simulating VVG simulate commercial JJ commercial crop NN crop production NN production using VVG use a DT a mixed JJ mixed honey NN honey bee NN bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. ) ) ) and CC and bumble VV bumble bee NN bee ( ( ( Bombus NP impatiens NN impatiens Cresson NP Cresson ) ) ) pollinator NN pollinator complex NN complex . SENT . At IN at anthesis NN anthesis , , , staminate JJ staminate cucumber NN cucumber , , , muskmelon NN muskmelon , , , and CC and watermelon NN watermelon flowers NNS flower contained VVN contain on IN on average JJ average 10539 CD @card@ , , , 11176 CD @card@ , , , and CC and 30739 CD @card@ pollen NN pollen grains/flower NN , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . At IN at the DT the time NN time flowers NNS flower closed VVD close in IN in the DT the early JJ early afternoon NN afternoon ( ( ( 1300 CD @card@ to TO to 1400 CD @card@ HR NP HR ) ) ) , , , only RB only 61 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of the DT the total JJ total pollen NN pollen produced VVD produce had VHD have been VBN be removed VVN remove from IN from staminate JJ staminate cucumber NN cucumber flowers NNS flower , , , 44 CD @card@ % NN % to TO to 62 CD @card@ % NN % from IN from muskmelon NN muskmelon , , , and CC and 81 CD @card@ % NN % from IN from watermelon NN watermelon flowers NNS flower . SENT . The DT the results NNS result suggest VVP suggest that DT that total JJ total pollen NN pollen production NN production in IN in these DT these crops NNS crop may MD may not RB not necessarily RB necessarily reflect VV reflect total JJ total pollen NN pollen availability NN availability to TO to floral JJ floral visitors NNS visitor ( ( ( bees NNS bee ) ) ) . SENT . However RB however , , , of IN of the DT the total JJ total amount NN amount of IN of pollen NN pollen actually RB actually removed VVN remove per IN per flower NN flower , , , > SYM > 57 CD @card@ % NN % occurred VVD occur during IN during the DT the 2 CD 2 h NN h following VVG follow flower NN flower anthesis NN anthesis of IN of cucumber NN cucumber and CC and muskmelon NN muskmelon , , , and CC and > SYM > 77 CD @card@ % NN % occurred VVD occur during IN during the DT the 2 CD 2 h NN h following VVG follow flower NN flower anthesis NN anthesis of IN of watermelon NN watermelon . SENT . Thus RB thus , , , most JJS most of IN of the DT the accessible JJ accessible pollen NN pollen was VBD be removed VVN remove shortly RB shortly after IN after anthesis NN anthesis , , , which WDT which is VBZ be when WRB when these DT these crops NNS crop are VBP be most RBS most receptive JJ receptive to TO to pollination NN pollination . SENT . Nonviable JJ nonviable triploid NN triploid and CC and viable JJ viable diploid JJ diploid watermelon NN watermelon pollen NN pollen were VBD be removed VVN remove at IN at similar JJ similar rates NNS rate ( ( ( P=0.4604 NP ) ) ) . SENT . While IN while correlation NN correlation analyses NNS analysis were VBD be not RB not possible JJ possible for IN for the DT the influence NN influence of IN of variable JJ variable bee NN bee abundance NN abundance on IN on pollen NN pollen depletion NN depletion rates NNS rate , , , higher JJR high bee NN bee populations NNS population in IN in one CD one year NN year appeared VVD appear to TO to increase VV increase the DT the rate NN rate at IN at which WDT which pollen NN pollen grains NNS grain were VBD be removed VVN remove from IN from staminate JJ staminate flowers NNS flower . SENT . Mutualistic JJ mutualistic interactions NNS interaction between IN between natives NNS native and CC and non-natives NNS , , , and CC and between IN between different JJ different introduced VVN introduce species NNS specie , , , can MD can play VV play an DT an important JJ important role NN role in IN in the DT the invasion NN invasion process NN process . SENT . The DT the facilitation NN facilitation of IN of a DT a new JJ new introduced VVN introduce species NNS specie by IN by a DT a previous JJ previous invader NN invader could MD could either RB either accelerate VV accelerate an DT an invasion NN invasion or CC or exacerbate VV exacerbate its PP$ its impact NN impact , , , providing VVG provided a DT a positive JJ positive feedback NN feedback loop NN loop in IN in heavily RB heavily invaded VVD invade ecosystems NNS ecosystem . SENT . Open JJ open grasslands NNS grassland in IN in Marin NP Marin County NP County , , , CA MD ca , , , are VBP be being VBG being invaded VVD invade by IN by two CD two closely RB closely related VVN relate , , , introduced VVD introduce legumes NNS legume , , , Cytisus NP scoparius NN ( ( ( Scotch JJ Scotch broom NN broom ) ) ) and CC and Genista NP Genista monspessulana NP ( ( ( French JJ French broom NN broom ) ) ) . SENT . These DT these non-clonal JJ shrubs NNS shrub have VHP have been VBN be shown VVN show to TO to be VB be non-autogamous JJ and CC and pollen NN pollen limited VVN limited , , , underscoring VVG underscore the DT the potential JJ potential importance NN importance of IN of pollinators NNS pollinator to TO to their PP$ their fecundity NN fecundity and CC and spread NN spread . SENT . The DT the flowers NNS flower of IN of both DT both are VBP be fused VVN fuse shut VVN shut and CC and require VV require forced VVN forced `` `` `` tripping VVG trip '' '' '' by IN by a DT a pollinator NN pollinator . SENT . We PP we measured VVD measured floral JJ floral characters NNS character and CC and pollen NN pollen production NN production to TO to make VV make predictions NNS prediction about IN about which WDT which species NNS specie would MD would be VB be most RBS most attractive JJ attractive , , , and CC and most RBS most accessible JJ accessible , , , to TO to bee NN bee visitors NNS visitor . SENT . Cytisus NP flowers NNS flower were VBD be an DT an order NN order of IN of magnitude NN magnitude larger JJR large and CC and produced VVD produce four CD four times NNS time as IN as many JJ many pollen NN pollen grains NNS grain , , , suggesting VVG suggest that IN that they PP they should MD should be VB be more RBR more attractive JJ attractive and CC and rewarding JJ rewarding than IN than Genista NP Genista flowers NNS flower . SENT . However RB however , , , Cytisus NP flowers NNS flower also RB also required VVD require significantly RB significantly more JJR more force NN force to TO to open VV open , , , suggesting VVG suggest that DT that less RBR less powerful JJ powerful pollinator NN pollinator species NNS specie might MD might be VB be excluded VVN exclude from IN from visiting VVG visit . SENT . We PP we tested VVD test these DT these predictions NNS prediction by IN by quantifying VVG quantify visitation NN visitation rates NNS rate and CC and directly RB directly observing VVG observe pollinators NNS pollinator at IN at two CD two sites NNS site where WRB where the DT the invaders NNS invader co-occur VVP . SENT . Consistent JJ consistent with IN with the DT the mechanical JJ mechanical assay NN assay , , , pollinators NNS pollinator were VBD be more RBR more successful JJ successful at IN at accessing VVG access flowers NNS flower of IN of the DT the small-flowered JJ Genista NP Genista than IN than the DT the large-flowered JJ large-flower Cytisus NP ; : ; however RB however , , , Cytisus NP was VBD be more JJR more frequently RB frequently visited VVD visit than IN than Genista NP Genista , , , suggesting VVG suggest that IN that pollinators NNS pollinator preferred VVD prefer the DT the larger JJR large and CC and more JJR more rewarding JJ rewarding species NNS specie . SENT . We PP we did VVD do not RB not find VV find evidence NN evidence to TO to support VV support the DT the prediction NN prediction that IN that the DT the small-flowered JJ Genista NP Genista was VBD be accessible JJ accessible to TO to a DT a greater JJR great diversity NN diversity of IN of pollinator NN pollinator species NNS specie . SENT . Although IN Although introduced VVN introduce from IN from the DT the same JJ same native JJ native range NN range as IN as the DT the two CD two plant NN plant invaders NNS invader , , , honey NN honey bees NNS bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NP ) ) ) were VBD be not RB not `` `` `` better RB better '' '' '' pollinators NNS pollinator than IN than native JJ native bumble VVP bumble bees NNS bee ( ( ( Bombus NP vosnesenskii NP ) ) ) in IN in terms NNS term of IN of effectiveness NN effectiveness at IN at tripping VVG trip flowers NNS flower or CC or the DT the number NN number of IN of flowers NNS flower visited VVD visit per IN per plant NN plant . SENT . However RB however , , , Apis NP was VBD be the DT the numerically RB numerically dominant JJ dominant pollinator NN pollinator at IN at both DT both sites NNS site , , , underscoring VVG underscore the DT the potential JJ potential conservation NN conservation implications NNS implication of IN of local JJ local Apis NP introduction NN introduction for IN for the DT the spread NN spread of IN of noxious JJ noxious weeds NNS weed in IN in natural JJ natural ecosystems NNS ecosystem . SENT . Bee NP Bee venom NN venom has VHZ have been VBN be reported VVN report to TO to exhibit VV exhibit antitumour JJ activity NN activity in-vitro NN in-vitro and CC and in IN in -vivo NN . SENT . Apoptosis NP , , , necrosis NN necrosis and CC and lysis NN lysis of IN of tumour NN tumour cells NNS cell were VBD be suggested VVN suggest as IN as possible JJ possible mechanisms NNS mechanism by IN by which WDT which bee NN bee venom NN venom inhibited VVD inhibit tumour NN tumour growth NN growth . SENT . The DT the aim NN aim of IN of this DT this study NN study was VBD be to TO to investigate VV investigate potential JJ potential mechanisms NNS mechanism by IN by which WDT which bee NN bee venom NN venom inhibits VVZ inhibit K1735M2 JJ mouse NN mouse melanoma NN melanoma cells NNS cell in-vitro NN in-vitro and CC and B16 NP melanoma NN melanoma , , , a DT a transplantable JJ transplantable solid JJ solid melanoma NN melanoma in IN in C57BL/6 NP mice NNS mouse , , , in-vivo RB . SENT . The DT the proliferation NN proliferation of IN of K1735M2 JJ cells NNS cell in-vitro NN in-vitro was VBD be inhibited VVD inhibit by IN by bee NN bee venom NN venom in IN in a DT a concentration- NN and CC and time-dependent JJ manner NN manner . SENT . The DT the inhibition NN inhibition was VBD be indicated VVN indicate by IN by the DT the arrest NN arrest of IN of the DT the cell NN cell cycle NN cycle at IN at the DT the G1 JJ stage NN stage , , , as RB as detected VVN detect by IN by flow NN flow cytometric JJ measurements NNS measurement . SENT . The DT the bee NN bee venom NN venom induced VVN induce apoptosis-like IN cell NN cell death NN death as IN as identified VVN identify by IN by histological JJ histological observations NNS observation and CC and by IN by DNA NN DNA fragmentation NN fragmentation . SENT . In IN in the DT the in-vivo JJ experiments NNS experiment , , , the DT the bee NN bee venom NN venom ( ( ( 1.0 CD @card@ , , , 3.0 CD @card@ , , , 9.0 CD @card@ mg NN mg kg-1 CD of IN of body NN body weight NN weight , , , on IN on days NNS day 1-12 CD @card@ ) ) ) was VBD be injected VVN inject intraperitoneally JJ into IN into mice NNS mouse 24 CD @card@ h NN h after IN after the DT the mice NNS mouse were VBD be inoculated VVN inoculate with IN with B16 NP cells NNS cell . SENT . Inhibition NN inhibition of IN of the DT the solid JJ solid tumour NN tumour was VBD be observed VVN observe . SENT . Apoptosis NN of IN of the DT the K1735M2 JJ cells NNS cell was VBD be suggested VVN suggest as IN as the DT the possible JJ possible mechanism NN mechanism by IN by which WDT which bee NN bee venom NN venom inhibited VVD inhibit cell NN cell proliferation NN proliferation and CC and induced VVD induce K1735M2 JJ cell NN cell differentiation NN differentiation in-vitro NN in-vitro . SENT . The DT the in-vivo JJ experiment NN experiment indicated VVD indicate that DT that bee NN bee venom NN venom could MD could be VB be used VVN use as IN as a DT a chemotherapeutic JJ agent NN agent against IN against malignant JJ malignant tumours NNS tumour . SENT . A DT a bioassay NN bioassay was VBD be developed VVN develop to TO to test VV test various JJ various aspects NNS aspect of IN of the DT the orientation NN orientation behaviour NN behaviour of IN of the DT the honey NN honey bee NN bee ectoparasite NN ectoparasite , , , Varroa NP jacobsoni NP . SENT . The DT the bioassay NN bioassay arena NN arena consisted VVD consist of IN of a DT a petri NNS petri dish NN dish , , , 60 CD @card@ mm NN in IN in diameter NN diameter , , , in IN in which WDT which live JJ live honey NN honey bee NN bee larvae NNS larva and CC and previously RB previously frozen VVN freeze adults NNS adult were VBD be used VVN use as IN as hosts NNS host . SENT . Bioassays NNS bioassay were VBD be conducted VVN conduct in IN in a DT a dark JJ dark incubator NN incubator at IN at 32degreeC NP for IN for 60 CD @card@ min NN min . SENT . Greater JJR great numbers NNS number of IN of mites NNS mite parasitized VVD parasitize worker NN worker larvae NNS larva than IN than drone NN drone larvae NNS larva , , , but CC but this DT this trend NN trend was VBD be not RB not significant JJ significant . SENT . Mites NNS mite of IN of various JJ various ages NNS age given VVN give a DT a choice NN choice between IN between nurse NN nurse bees NNS bee and CC and fifth JJ fifth instar NN instar worker NN worker larvae NNS larva preferred JJ preferred nurse NN nurse bees NNS bee at IN at all DT all ages NNS age of IN of mites NNS mite tested VVD test , , , excluding VVG exclude newly RB newly emerged VVN emerge mites NNS mite . SENT . When WRB when given VVN give a DT a choice NN choice between IN between a DT a nurse NN nurse bee NN bee and CC and a DT a pollen NN pollen forager NN forager , , , V. NP V. jacobsoni NP did VVD do not RB not show VV show a DT a preference NN preference , , , and CC and similarly RB similarly when WRB when given VVN give a DT a choice NN choice between IN between a DT a nurse NN nurse bee NN bee and CC and an DT an adult NN adult drone NN drone no DT no preference NN preference was VBD be observed VVN observe . SENT . Finally RB finally , , , when WRB when given VVN give a DT a choice NN choice between IN between a DT a nurse NN nurse bee NN bee extracted VVN extract with IN with hexane NN hexane and CC and a DT a non-extracted VVN nurse NN nurse bee NN bee , , , V. NP V. jacobsoni NP preferred VVD prefer the DT the non-extracted VVN host NN host . SENT . Insect NN insect mushroom NN mushroom bodies NNS body are VBP be brain NN brain regions NNS region that WDT that receive VVP receive multisensory JJ input NN input and CC and are VBP be thought VVN think to TO to play VV play an DT an important JJ important role NN role in IN in learning VVG learn and CC and memory NN memory . SENT . In IN in most JJS most neopteran JJ insects NNS insect , , , the DT the mushroom NN mushroom bodies NNS body receive VVP receive direct JJ direct olfactory JJ olfactory input NN input . SENT . In IN in addition NN addition , , , the DT the calyces NN calyces of IN of Hymenoptera NP receive VVP receive substantial JJ substantial direct JJ direct input NN input from IN from the DT the optic JJ optic lobes NNS lobe . SENT . We PP we describe VVP describe visual JJ visual inputs NNS input to TO to the DT the calyces NN calyces of IN of the DT the mushroom NN mushroom bodies NNS body of IN of the DT the honeybee NN honeybee Apis NP mellifera NP , , , the DT the neurons NNS neuron ' POS ' dendritic JJ dendritic fields NNS field in IN in the DT the optic JJ optic lobes NNS lobe , , , the DT the medulla NN medulla and CC and lobula NN , , , and CC and the DT the organization NN organization of IN of their PP$ their terminals NNS terminal in IN in the DT the calyces NN calyces . SENT . Medulla NN medulla neurons NNS neuron terminate VV terminate in IN in the DT the collar NN collar region NN region of IN of the DT the calyx NN calyx , , , where WRB where they PP they segregate VV segregate into IN into five CD five layers NNS layer that WDT that receive VVP receive alternating VVG alternate input NN input from IN from the DT the dorsal JJ dorsal or CC or ventral JJ ventral medulla NN medulla , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . A DT a sixth JJ sixth , , , innermost JJ innermost layer NN layer of IN of the DT the collar NN collar receives VVZ receive input NN input from IN from lobula NN neurons NNS neuron . SENT . In IN in the DT the basal JJ basal ring NN ring region NN region of IN of the DT the calyx NN calyx , , , medulla NN medulla neuron NN neuron terminals NNS terminal are VBP be restricted VVN restrict to TO to a DT a small JJ small , , , distal JJ distal part NN part . SENT . Lobula NP neurons NNS neuron are VBP be more RBR more prominent JJ prominent in IN in the DT the basal JJ basal ring NN ring , , , where WRB where they PP they terminate VV terminate in IN in its PP$ its outer JJ outer half NN half . SENT . Although IN Although the DT the collar NN collar and CC and basal JJ basal ring NN ring layers NNS layer generally RB generally receive VVP receive segregated JJ segregated input NN input from IN from both DT both optic JJ optic neuropils NNS , , , some DT some overlap VVP overlap occurs VVZ occur at IN at the DT the borders NNS border of IN of the DT the layers NNS layer . SENT . At IN at least JJS least three CD three different JJ different types NNS type of IN of mushroom NN mushroom body NN body input NN input neurons NNS neuron originate VV originate from IN from the DT the medulla NN medulla : : : ( ( ( a DT a ) ) ) neurons NNS neuron with IN with narrow JJ narrow dendritic JJ dendritic fields NNS field mainly RB mainly restricted VVN restrict to TO to the DT the vicinity NN vicinity of IN of the DT the medulla NN medulla 's POS 's serpentine JJ serpentine layer NN layer and CC and found VVD find throughout IN throughout the DT the medulla NN medulla ; : ; ( ( ( b LS b ) ) ) neurons NNS neuron restricted VVN restrict to TO to the DT the ventral JJ ventral half NN half of IN of the DT the medulla NN medulla and CC and featuring VVG feature long JJ long columnar NN columnar dendritic JJ dendritic branches NNS branch in IN in the DT the outer JJ outer medulla NN medulla ; : ; and CC and ( ( ( c LS c ) ) ) a DT a group NN group of IN of neurons NNS neuron whose WP$ whose dendrites NNS dendrite are VBP be restricted VVN restrict to TO to the DT the most RBS most ventral JJ ventral part NN part of IN of the DT the medulla NN medulla and CC and whose WP$ whose axons NNS axon form VVP form the DT the anterior JJ anterior inferior JJ inferior optic JJ optic tract NN tract . SENT . Most JJS most medulla NN medulla neurons NNS neuron ( ( ( groups NNS group a DT a and CC and b LS b ) ) ) send VV send their PP$ their axons NNS axon via IN via the DT the anterior JJ anterior superior JJ superior optic JJ optic tract NN tract to TO to the DT the mushroom NN mushroom bodies NNS body . SENT . Neurons NNS neuron connecting VVG connect the DT the lobula NN with IN with the DT the mushroom NN mushroom bodies NNS body have VHP have their PP$ their dendrites NNS dendrite in IN in a DT a defined VVN define dorsal JJ dorsal part NN part of IN of the DT the lobula NN . SENT . Their PP$ their axons NNS axon form VVP form a DT a third JJ third tract NN tract to TO to the DT the mushroom NN mushroom bodies NNS body , , , here RB here referred VVD refer to TO to as IN as the DT the lobula NN tract NN tract . SENT . Our PP$ our findings NNS finding match VVP match the DT the anatomy NN anatomy of IN of intrinsic JJ intrinsic mushroom NN mushroom body NN body neurons NNS neuron ( ( ( Strausfeld NP , , , 2002 CD @card@ ) ) ) and CC and together RB together indicate VVP indicate that IN that the DT the mushroom NN mushroom bodies NNS body may MD may be VB be composed VVN compose of IN of many DT many more RBR more functional JJ functional subsystems NNS subsystem than IN than previously RB previously suggested VVN suggest . SENT . Honeybee NN honeybee defensive JJ defensive behavior NN behaviour is VBZ be a DT a useful JJ useful selection NN selection criterion NN criterion , , , especially RB especially in IN in areas NNS area with IN with Africanized VVN Africanize honeybees NNS honeybee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NP L NP L ) ) ) . SENT . In IN in all DT all genetic JJ genetic improvement NN improvement programs NNS programme the DT the selected VVN select characters NNS character must MD must be VB be measured VVN measured with IN with precision NN precision , , , and CC and because RB because of IN of this DT this we PP we evaluated VVD evaluate a DT a metabolic JJ metabolic method NN method for IN for testing NN testing honeybee NN honeybee defensive JJ defensive behavior NN behaviour in IN in the DT the laboratory NN laboratory for IN for its PP$ its usefulness NN usefulness in IN in distinguishing VVG distinguish between IN between honeybee NN honeybee ecotypes NNS ecotype and CC and selecting VVG select honeybees NNS honeybee based VVN base on IN on their PP$ their level NN level of IN of defensive JJ defensive responses NNS response . SENT . Ten CD Ten honeybee NN honeybee colonies NNS colony were VBD be used VVN use , , , five CD five having VHG have been VBN be produced VVN produce by IN by feral JJ feral queens NNS queen from IN from a DT a subtropical JJ subtropical region NN region supposedly RB supposedly colonized VVD colonize by IN by Africanized VVN Africanize honeybees NNS honeybee and CC and five CD five by IN by queens NNS queen from IN from a DT a temperate JJ temperate region NN region apparently RB apparently colonized VVD colonize by IN by European JJ European honeybees NNS honeybee . SENT . We PP we evaluate VVP evaluate honeybee NN honeybee defensive JJ defensive behavior NN behaviour using VVG use a DT a metabolic JJ metabolic test NN test based VVN base on IN on oxygen NN oxygen consumption NN consumption after IN after stimulation NN stimulation with IN with an DT an alarm NN alarm pheromone NN pheromone , , , measuring VVG measure the DT the time NN time to TO to the DT the first JJ first response NN response , , , time NN time to TO to maximum JJ maximum oxygen NN oxygen consumption NN consumption , , , duration NN duration of IN of activity NN activity , , , oxygen NN oxygen consumption NN consumption at IN at first JJ first response NN response , , , maximum JJ maximum oxygen NN oxygen consumption NN consumption and CC and total JJ total oxygen NN oxygen consumption NN consumption , , , colonies NNS colony being VBG being ranked VVN rank according VVG accord to TO to the DT the values NNS value obtained VVN obtain for IN for each DT each variable NN variable . SENT . Significant JJ significant ( ( ( p NN p < SYM < 0.05 CD @card@ ) ) ) differences NNS difference were VBD be detected VVN detect between IN between ecotypes NNS ecotype for IN for each DT each variable NN variable but CC but for IN for all DT all variables NNS variable the DT the highest JJS high rankings NNS ranking were VBD be obtained VVN obtain for IN for colonies NNS colony of IN of subtropical JJ subtropical origin NN origin , , , which WDT which had VHD have faster RBR faster and CC and more RBR more intense JJ intense responses NNS response . SENT . All DT all variables NNS variable were VBD be highly RB highly associated VVN associate ( ( ( p NN p < SYM < 0.05 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . Total JJ total oxygen NN oxygen consumption NN consumption was VBD be the DT the best JJS good indicator NN indicator of IN of metabolic JJ metabolic activity NN activity for IN for defensive JJ defensive behavior NN behaviour because IN because it PP it combined VVD combine oxygen NN oxygen consumption NN consumption and CC and the DT the length NN length of IN of the DT the response NN response . SENT . This DT this laboratory NN laboratory method NN method may MD may be VB be useful JJ useful for IN for evaluating VVG evaluate the DT the defensive JJ defensive behavior NN behaviour of IN of honey NN honey bees NNS bee in IN in genetic JJ genetic programs NNS programme designed VVN design to TO to select VV select less JJR less defensive JJ defensive bees NNS bee . SENT . The DT the mechanisms NNS mechanism underlying VVG underlie the DT the control NN control of IN of solution NN solution transport NN transport rates NNS rate through IN through the DT the proventriculus NN proventriculus in IN in foraging VVG forage honeybees NNS honeybee were VBD be investigated VVN investigate in IN in individuals NNS individual trained VVN train to TO to collect VV collect defined VVN define amounts NNS amount of IN of sugar NN sugar solutions NNS solution . SENT . Following VVG follow feeding NN feeding , , , bees NNS bee were VBD be injected VVN inject either RB either with IN with metabolisable JJ metabolizable ( ( ( glucose NN glucose , , , fructose NN fructose , , , trehalose NN trehalose ) ) ) , , , or CC or non-metabolisable JJ ( ( ( sorbose NN sorbose ) ) ) sugars NNS sugar , , , in IN in order NN order to TO to distinguish VV distinguish between IN between haemolymph JJ osmolarity NN and CC and haemolymph JJ sugar NN sugar levels NNS level as IN as factors NNS factor controlling VVG control the DT the solution NN solution transport NN transport rates NNS rate through IN through the DT the proventriculus NN proventriculus . SENT . After IN after a DT a fixed JJ fixed period NN period , , , workers NNS worker were VBD be dissected VVN dissect in IN in order NN order to TO to measure VV measure crop NN crop content NN content and CC and haemolymph JJ sugar NN sugar titers NNS titre . SENT . Between IN between feeding NN feeding and CC and dissection NN dissection , , , the DT the metabolic JJ metabolic rate NN rate of IN of every DT every investigated VVN investigate forager NN forager was VBD be measured VVN measured using VVG use open-flow NN respirometry NN . SENT . Bees NNS bee injected VVD inject with IN with metabolisable JJ metabolizable sugars NNS sugar 15 CD @card@ min NN min after IN after feeding NN feeding were VBD be observed VVN observe to TO to reduce VV reduce their PP$ their solution NN solution transport NN transport rates NNS rate through IN through the DT the proventriculus NN proventriculus , , , but CC but injection NN injection of IN of non-metabolisable JJ sugars NNS sugar had VHD have no DT no influence NN influence on IN on them PP them . SENT . This DT this suggests VVZ suggest that IN that the DT the solution NN solution transport NN transport rate NN rate through IN through the DT the proventriculus NN proventriculus is VBZ be controlled VVN control by IN by the DT the concentration NN concentration of IN of metabolisable JJ metabolizable compounds NNS compound in IN in the DT the haemolymph NN , , , and CC and not RB not by IN by the DT the haemolymph JJ osmolarity NN . SENT . A DT a period NN period of IN of 10 CD @card@ min NN min after IN after injection NN injection of IN of metabolisable JJ metabolizable sugars NNS sugar was VBD be enough JJ enough to TO to observe VV observe reduced JJ reduced solution NN solution transport NN transport rates NNS rate . SENT . However RB however , , , if IN if bees NNS bee were VBD be injected VVN inject only RB only 5 CD 5 min NN min after IN after feeding NN feeding , , , no DT no reduced JJ reduced solution NN solution transport NN transport rates NNS rate were VBD be observed VVN observe 10 CD @card@ min NN min after IN after injection NN injection . SENT . The DT the control NN control of IN of crop NN crop emptying VVG empty in IN in foraging VVG forage honeybees NNS honeybee was VBD be investigated VVN investigate in IN in individuals NNS individual trained VVN train to TO to collect VV collect defined VVN define amounts NNS amount of IN of sugar NN sugar solutions NNS solution . SENT . Following VVG follow feeding NN feeding , , , they PP they were VBD be dissected VVN dissect after IN after fixed JJ fixed periods NNS period of IN of time NN time in IN in order NN order to TO to measure VV measure crop NN crop content NN content and CC and haemolymph JJ sugar NN sugar titers NNS titre . SENT . Between IN between feeding NN feeding and CC and dissection NN dissection , , , the DT the metabolic JJ metabolic rate NN rate of IN of every DT every investigated VVN investigate forager NN forager was VBD be measured VVN measured using VVG use open-flow NN respirometry NN , , , so RB so as RB as to TO to assess VV assess the DT the effects NNS effect of IN of both DT both food NN food quality NN quality ( ( ( concentration NN concentration , , , molarity NN molarity and CC and viscosity NN viscosity of IN of the DT the fed VVN feed sugar NN sugar solution NN solution ) ) ) and CC and food NN food quantity NN quantity on IN on the DT the transport NN transport rate NN rate through IN through the DT the proventriculus NN proventriculus . SENT . The DT the sugar NN sugar transport NN transport rate NN rate through IN through the DT the proventriculus NN proventriculus was VBD be observed VVN observe to TO to be VB be mainly RB mainly dependent JJ dependent on IN on the DT the metabolic JJ metabolic expenditure NN expenditure of IN of the DT the individual NN individual . SENT . Bee NP Bee foragers NNS forager were VBD be able JJ able to TO to precisely RB precisely adjust VV adjust the DT the sugar NN sugar transport NN transport rate NN rate of IN of their PP$ their metabolic JJ metabolic rates NNS rate , , , but CC but under IN under certain JJ certain conditions NNS condition , , , an DT an excess NN excess of IN of sugars NNS sugar was VBD be transported VVN transport through IN through the DT the proventriculus NN proventriculus , , , more JJR more than IN than needed VVN need to TO to cover VV cover the DT the bee NN bee 's POS 's energetic JJ energetic demands NNS demand . SENT . This DT this excess NN excess depended VVD depend on IN on the DT the nutritive JJ nutritive value NN value and CC and quantity NN quantity of IN of the DT the fed VVN feed sugar NN sugar solution NN solution , , , and CC and on IN on the DT the time NN time after IN after feeding NN feeding . SENT . It PP it did VVD do not RB not depend VV depend on IN on the DT the metabolic JJ metabolic rate NN rate of IN of the DT the bee NN bee , , , the DT the molarity NN molarity , , , or CC or the DT the viscosity NN viscosity of IN of the DT the fed VVN feed sugar NN sugar solution NN solution . SENT . As RB as long RB long as IN as the DT the bees NNS bee did VVD do not RB not exhaust VV exhaust their PP$ their crop NN crop contents NNS content , , , the DT the haemolymph JJ sugar NN sugar titers NNS titre were VBD be unaffected JJ unaffected by IN by this DT this excess JJ excess amount NN amount transported VVD transport , , , by IN by the DT the time NN time after IN after feeding NN feeding , , , the DT the concentration NN concentration and CC and the DT the viscosity NN viscosity of IN of the DT the fed VVN feed sugar NN sugar solution NN solution . SENT . For IN for all DT all feeding NN feeding conditions NNS condition assayed VVD assay , , , the DT the haemolymph JJ trehalose NN trehalose titer NN titre remained VVD remain constant JJ constant , , , while IN while the DT the titers NNS titre of IN of other JJ other haemolymph JJ sugars NNS sugar varied VVD vary . SENT . It PP it is VBZ be suggested VVN suggest that IN that the DT the trehalose NN trehalose concentration NN concentration in IN in the DT the haemolymph NN is VBZ be regulated VVN regulate in IN in honeybees NNS honeybee , , , and CC and that WDT that it PP it represents VVZ represent the DT the controlled VVN control variable NN variable in IN in the DT the feedback NN feedback loop NN loop responsible JJ responsible for IN for the DT the transport NN transport rate NN rate through IN through the DT the proventriculus NN proventriculus . SENT . The DT the progress NN progress of IN of infection NN infection of IN of American JJ American foulbrood NN ( ( ( AFB NP ) ) ) , , , Paenibacillus NP larvae NNS larva larvae NNS larva , , , in IN in honey NN honey bee NN bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) larvae NNS larva , , , prepupae NN , , , and CC and pupae NNS pupa were VBD be studied VVN study in IN in in IN in vitro NN rearings NNS , , , micro NN colonies NNS colony and CC and full-size JJ full-size colonies NNS colony . SENT . P. NP P. I. NP I. larvae NNS larva spores NNS swarm in IN in various JJ various known VVN know numbers NNS number ( ( ( 3-1384 CD @card@ spores NNS swarm per IN per larva NN larva ) ) ) were VBD be inoculated VVN inoculate at IN at a DT a larval JJ larval age NN age of IN of 24-28 CD @card@ h NN h . SENT . The DT the in IN in vitro NN study NN study suggested VVD suggest that DT that survival NN survival time NN time decreased VVD decrease with IN with increasing VVG increase spore NN swarm inoculation NN inoculation dose NN dose . SENT . No DT no larvae NNS larva inoculated VVN inoculate with IN with three CD three spores NNS swarm died VVN die before IN before day NN day 6 CD 6 , , , but CC but 30 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of the DT the larvae NNS larva inoculated VVN inoculate with IN with 1384 CD @card@ spores NNS swarm had VHD have died VVN die at IN at day NN day 4 CD 4 , , , 36 CD @card@ h NN h before IN before the DT the time NN time of IN of capping VVG cap ( ( ( in IN in a DT a bee NN bee colony NN colony ) ) ) . SENT . On IN on day NN day 4 CD 4 , , , approximately RB approximately 480 CD @card@ 000 CD @card@ bacterial JJ bacterial colonies NNS colony were VBD be cultured VVN culture per IN per larvae NNS larva inoculated VVN inoculate with IN with 1384 CD @card@ spores NNS swarm at IN at a DT a larval JJ larval age NN age of IN of 24 CD @card@ h NN h . SENT . Viable JJ viable counts NNS count of IN of P. NP P. I. NP I. larvae NNS larva per IN per larvae NNS larva from IN from inoculation NN inoculation and CC and four CD four weeks NNS week onwards RB onward fitted JJ fitted ( ( ( R2 JJ = SYM = 0.917 CD @card@ ) ) ) a DT a standard JJ standard model NN model for IN for bacterial JJ bacterial growth NN growth : : : Iny NP Iny = SYM = b SYM b ln VVN ( ( ( 1 CD 1 + SYM + exp NN ( ( ( a DT a = SYM = rt VVN ) ) ) ) ) ) , , , where WRB where y NP y is VBZ be predicted VVN predict viable JJ viable count NN count , , , r LS r is VBZ be growth NN growth rate NN rate , , , t NN t is VBZ be larval JJ larval age NN age in IN in hours NNS hour , , , and CC and b LS b and CC and a DT a are VBP be constants NNS constant . SENT . Bacterial JJ bacterial growth NN growth rate NN rate in IN in the DT the four CD four weeks NNS week infection NN infection period NN period was VBD be estimated VVN estimate to TO to be VB be r SYM r = SYM = 0.179+-0.030 CD h-1 CD . SENT . In IN in the DT the queenless JJ micro NN colonies NNS colony and CC and full-size JJ full-size colonies NNS colony the DT the first JJ first signs NNS sign of IN of AFB NP were VBD be not RB not visible JJ visible to TO to human JJ human eyes NNS eye until IN until day NN day 4 CD 4 . SENT . By IN by day NN day 3 CD 3 nurse NN nurse bees NNS bee removed VVD remove 40 CD @card@ % NN % and CC and 50 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of the DT the inoculated VVN inoculate larvae NNS larva , , , respectively RB respectively , , , indicating VVG indicate that IN that they PP they are VBP be able JJ able to TO to detect VV detect infected JJ infected larvae NNS larva before IN before disease NN disease symptoms NNS symptom are VBP be visible JJ visible . SENT . An DT an early JJ early removal NN removal behaviour NN behaviour probably RB probably is VBZ be a DT a very RB very important JJ important trait NN trait to TO to focus VV focus on IN on when WRB when breeding NN breeding for IN for resistance NN resistance against IN against AFB NP . SENT . The DT the removal NN removal behaviour NN behaviour of IN of nurse NN nurse bees NNS bee in IN in micro NN colonies NNS colony was VBD be well RB well correlated VVN correlate with IN with removal NN removal in IN in full-size JJ full-size colonies NNS colony . SENT . We PP we conclude VVP conclude that IN that , , , the DT the micro NN colonies NNS colony may MD may serve VV serve as IN as a DT a labour NN labour and CC and time NN time saving VVG saving model NN model for IN for full-size JJ full-size colonies NNS colony when WRB when testing VVG test the DT the removal NN removal behaviour NN behaviour of IN of selected JJ selected bee NN bee lines NNS line . SENT . We PP we examined VVD examine whether IN whether fruit NN fruit production NN production in IN in the DT the South JJ South American JJ American endemic JJ endemic tree NN tree Geoffroea NP decorticans NP depends VVZ depend on IN on pollinators NNS pollinator . SENT . Although IN Although diverse JJ diverse native JJ native pollinators NNS pollinator were VBD be recorded VVN record , , , Apis NP mellifera NP reached VVN reach > SYM > 60 CD @card@ % NN % of IN of the DT the visits NNS visit . SENT . Honey NN honey bees NNS bee can MD can pollinate VV pollinate efficiently RB efficiently but CC but promote VV promote mainly RB mainly geitonogamous JJ pollination NN pollination . SENT . Geoffroea NP decorticans NNS is VBZ be facultatively RB facultatively xenogamous JJ xenogamous and CC and can MD can produce VV produce few JJ few fruits NNS fruit from IN from selfing NN . SENT . The DT the best JJS good fruit NN fruit set NN set was VBD be produced VVN produce by IN by hand NN hand -xenogamous JJ pollination NN pollination . SENT . Fruit NP Fruit set VVD set by IN by hand NN hand self- NN and CC and natural-pollination NN were VBD be similarly RB similarly less JJR less . SENT . Although IN Although floral JJ floral display NN display was VBD be relatively RB relatively constant JJ constant throughout IN throughout the DT the reproductive JJ reproductive season NN season , , , a DT a decrease NN decrease was VBD be observed VVN observe in IN in both DT both pollinator NN pollinator activity NN activity and CC and fruit NN fruit production NN production . SENT . We PP we conclude VVP conclude that DT that successful JJ successful fruit NN fruit production NN production in IN in G. NP G. decorticans NNS depends VVZ depend on IN on pollinator NN pollinator activity NN activity , , , but CC but is VBZ be actually RB actually limited VVN limited by IN by the DT the quality NN quality of IN of the DT the pollen NN pollen transferred VVN transfer by IN by A. NP A. mellifera NN . SENT . The DT the repercussions NNS repercussion of IN of concurrent JJ concurrent foraging VVG forage by IN by honey NN honey bee NN bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) and CC and non-Apis NN bee NN bee populations NNS population on IN on cross-pollination NN cross-pollination and CC and seed NN seed set VVN set in IN in hybrid JJ hybrid sunflowers NNS sunflower ( ( ( Helianthus NN helianthus annuus NN ) ) ) was VBD be investigated VVN investigate . SENT . The DT the amount NN amount of IN of sunflower NN sunflower pollen NN pollen on IN on the DT the bodies NNS body of IN of honey NN honey bees NNS bee foraging VVG forage in IN in rows NNS row of IN of male-sterile JJ male-sterile ( ( ( MS NN Ms ) ) ) sunflowers NNS sunflower was VBD be positively RB positively correlated VVN correlate with IN with the DT the size NN size of IN of the DT the non-Apis NN bee NN bee population NN population . SENT . The DT the combined JJ combined population NN population of IN of non-Apis NN bees NNS bee and CC and honey NN honey bees NNS bee foraging VVG forage on IN on male-fertile JJ male-fertile ( ( ( MF NP ) ) ) and CC and MS NN Ms sunflowers NNS sunflower also RB also was VBD be positively RB positively correlated VVN correlate to TO to seed NN seed set VVN set in IN in MS NN Ms rows NNS row . SENT . There EX There were VBD be more JJR more honey NN honey bees NNS bee than IN than non JJ non -Apis NN bees NNS bee foraging VVG forage in IN in MF NP and CC and MS NN Ms rows NNS row , , , but CC but there EX there was VBD be no DT no evidence NN evidence of IN of competition NN competition for IN for resources NNS resource between IN between the DT the two CD two populations NNS population . SENT . The DT the size NN size of IN of the DT the honey NN honey bee NN bee population NN population was VBD be positively RB positively correlated VVN correlate to TO to the DT the area NN area of IN of open JJ open flowers NNS flower on IN on sunflower NN sunflower capitula NNS capitulum , , , while IN while the DT the non-Apis NN population NN population remained VVD remain relatively RB relatively constant JJ constant throughout IN throughout bloom NN bloom . SENT . Results NNS result from IN from this DT this study NN study indicate VVP indicate that IN that a DT a combined JJ combined honey NN honey bee NN bee and CC and non-Apis NN bee NN bee population NN population might MD might result VV result in IN in better JJR good pollination NN pollination of IN of hybrid JJ hybrid sunflowers NNS sunflower than IN than either DT either population NN population alone RB alone . SENT . We PP we studied VVD study the DT the genetic JJ genetic control NN control of IN of the DT the dance NN dance dialects NNS dialect that WDT that exist VVP exist in IN in the DT the different JJ different subspecies NN subspecies of IN of honey NN honey bees NNS bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) by IN by observing VVG observe the DT the variation NN variation in IN in dance NN dance form NN form observed VVD observe in IN in a DT a backcross NN backcross between IN between two CD two lines NNS line that WDT that showed VVD show widely RB widely different JJ different dance NN dance dialects NNS dialect . SENT . To TO To do VV do this DT this we PP we generated VVD generate the DT the reciprocal JJ reciprocal of IN of the DT the cross NN crosslet performed VVN perform by IN by Rinderer NP Rinderer and CC and Beaman NP Beaman ( ( ( 1995 CD @card@ ) ) ) , , , thus RB thus producing VVG produce phenotypic JJ phenotypic segregation NN segregation of IN of dance NN dance forms NNS form within IN within a DT a single JJ single colony NN colony rather RB rather than IN than between IN between colonies NNS colony . SENT . Our PP$ our results NNS result are VBP be consistent JJ consistent with IN with Rinderer NP Rinderer and CC and Beaman NP Beaman ( ( ( 1995 CD @card@ ) ) ) in IN in that DT that inheritance NN inheritance of IN of the DT the transition NN transition point NN point from IN from round NN round dancing VVG dance fwdarw JJ waggle NN waggle dancing NN dancing is VBZ be consistent JJ consistent with IN with control NN control by IN by a DT a single JJ single locus NN locus with IN with more JJR more than IN than one CD one allele NN allele . SENT . That DT that is VBZ be , , , we PP we found VVD find one CD one dance NN dance type NN type to TO to be VB be dominant JJ dominant in IN in the DT the F1 JJ , , , and CC and observed VVD observe a DT a 1 CD 1 : : : 1 CD 1 segregation NN segregation of IN of dance NN dance in IN in a DT a backcross NN backcross involving VVG involve the DT the F1 JJ and CC and the DT the recessive JJ recessive parent NN parent . SENT . However RB however , , , we PP we found VVD find some DT some minor JJ minor differences NNS difference in IN in dance NN dance dialect NN dialect inheritance NN inheritance , , , with IN with the DT the most RBS most significant JJ significant being VBG being an DT an apparent JJ apparent reversal NN reversal of IN of dominance NN dominance between IN between our PP$ our cross NN crosslet ( ( ( for IN for us PP us `` `` `` black JJ black '' '' '' is VBZ be the DT the dominant JJ dominant dialect NN dialect ) ) ) and CC and that IN that of IN of Rinderer NP Rinderer and CC and Beaman NP Beaman ( ( ( 1995 CD @card@ ) ) ) ( ( ( they PP they report VVP report `` `` `` yellow JJ yellow '' '' '' to TO to be VB be the DT the dominant JJ dominant dialect NN dialect ) ) ) . SENT . We PP we also RB also found VVD find that IN that our PP$ our black JJ black bees NNS bee do VVP do not RB not perform VV perform a DT a distinct JJ distinct sickle NN sickle dance NN dance , , , whereas IN whereas the DT the black JJ black bees NNS bee used VVN use by IN by Rinderer NP Rinderer and CC and Beaman NP Beaman ( ( ( 1995 CD @card@ ) ) ) did VVD do perform VV perform such PDT such a DT a dance NN dance . SENT . However RB however , , , our PP$ our difference NN difference in IN in dominance NN dominance need VVP need not RB not contradict VV contradict the DT the results NNS result of IN of Rinderer NP Rinderer and CC and Beaman NP Beaman ( ( ( 1995 CD @card@ ) ) ) , , , as IN as there EX there is VBZ be no DT no evidence NN evidence that IN that body NN body color NN colour and CC and dominance NN dominance for IN for dance NN dance dialect NN dialect are VBP be linked VVN link . SENT . The DT the pollen NN pollen choice NN choice by IN by native JJ native carpenter NN carpenter bees NNS bee ( ( ( Xylocopa NP splendidula NN ) ) ) in IN in the DT the Argentine JJ Argentine pampas NN pampas was VBD be surveyed VVN survey by IN by means NNS mean of IN of the DT the pollen NN pollen harvest NN harvest in IN in nests NNS nest . SENT . Samples NNS sample were VBD be taken VVN take in IN in January NP January 1996 CD @card@ , , , 1997 CD @card@ and CC and December NP December 1998 CD @card@ . SENT . The DT the data NNS datum obtained VVN obtain were VBD be compared VVN compare with IN with data NNS datum from IN from introduced VVN introduce honey NN honey bees NNS bee , , , Apis NP mellifera NN , , , in IN in the DT the same JJ same region NN region ( ( ( Telleria NP Telleria , , , 1993 CD @card@ ) ) ) . SENT . 16 CD @card@ species NNS specie belonging VVG belong to TO to 11 CD @card@ families NNS family of IN of Angiosperms NNS angiosperm are VBP be present JJ present in IN in the DT the foraging VVG forage spectrum NN spectrum of IN of X. NP X. splendidula NN . SENT . The DT the carpenter NN carpenter bees NNS bee principally RB principally collected VVN collect pollen NN pollen from IN from the DT the plants NNS plant which WDT which are VBP be isolated VVN isolate or CC or in IN in small JJ small populations NNS population . SENT . In IN in contrast NN contrast forage NN forage plants NNS plant for IN for honey NN honey bees NNS bee are VBP be in IN in dense JJ dense populations NNS population . SENT . Such JJ such differences NNS difference may MD may be VB be attributed VVN attribute to TO to different JJ different skills NNS skill needed VVN need to TO to exploit VV exploit the DT the resources NNS resource , , , and CC and to TO to displacement NN displacement of IN of native JJ native carpenter NN carpenter bees NNS bee towards IN towards less JJR less productive JJ productive environments NNS environment , , , by IN by introduced VVN introduce honey NN honey bees NNS bee . SENT . Duration NN duration of IN of ontogenic JJ ontogenic development NN development of IN of Pseudacarapis NP indoapis NP Lindquist NP Lindquist , , , a DT a tarsonemid JJ mite NN mite associated VVN associate with IN with the DT the Indian JJ Indian honeybee NN honeybee Apis NP cerana NP Fabr. NP ranged VVD range from IN from 154 CD @card@ to TO to 187 CD @card@ hours NNS hour for IN for males NNS male and CC and 206 CD @card@ to TO to 218 CD @card@ hours NNS hour for IN for females NNS female . SENT . Development NP Development involved VVD involve a DT a single JJ single larval JJ larval period NN period in IN in between IN between egg NN egg and CC and adult NN adult stages NNS stage . SENT . Marked JJ marked sexual JJ sexual dimorphism NN dimorphism has VHZ have been VBN be recorded VVN record among IN amongst the DT the larvae NNS larva during IN during late JJ late larval JJ larval period NN period . SENT . Breeding VVG breed activities NNS activity involved VVD involve guarding VVG guard of IN of female NN female by IN by male NN male followed VVN follow by IN by retroconjugation NN . SENT . Sex NN sex ratio NN ratio among IN amongst the DT the progeny NN progeny of IN of fertilised VVN fertilize females NNS female varied VVN vary between IN between 1.41 CD @card@ : : : 1 CD 1 and CC and 2.75 CD @card@ : : : 1 LS 1 . SENT . Unfertilised JJ females NNS female produced VVD produce only RB only male JJ male progeny NN progeny . SENT . Three CD Three honeybee NN honeybee species NN species viz. NN , , , Apis NP florea NP Florea , , , A. NP A. dorsata NP and CC and A. NP A. cerana NN indica NNS are VBP be important JJ important foragers NNS forager on IN on litchi NN litchi flowers NNS flower . SENT . A. NP A. dorsata NN was VBD be most RBS most dominant JJ dominant ( ( ( 44.48 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) followed VVN follow by IN by A. NP A. cerana NN indica NN ( ( ( 41.86 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) and CC and A. NP A. florea NN ( ( ( 4.59 CD @card@ % NN % ) ) ) amongst IN amongst honeybee NN honeybee species NNS specie . SENT . Honeybee NN honeybee species NNS specie alone RB alone constituted VVD constitute 90.93 CD @card@ per IN per cent NN cent share NN share over IN over total JJ total visitors NNS visitor . SENT . The DT the population NN population of IN of foragers NNS forager was VBD be found VVN find floral JJ floral density NN density dependent JJ dependent rather RB rather environmental JJ environmental parameters NNS parameter . SENT . Bionomics NNS bionomics of IN of some DT some predators NNS predator attacking VVG attack aphids NNS aphid and CC and spider NN spider mites NNS mite of IN of vegetables NNS vegetable was VBD be investigated VVN investigate in IN in Paraguay NP Paraguay . SENT . Ladybirds NNS ladybird , , , Eriopis NP connexa NP , , , Coleomegilla NP maculata NP , , , C. NP C. quadrifasciata NN , , , and CC and Olla NN olla v-nigrum NN , , , were VBD be successfully RB successfully reared VVN rear on IN on a DT a drone NN drone honeybee NN honeybee powder NN powder diet NN diet . SENT . Total JJ total development NN development time NN time was VBD be 18.9 CD @card@ days NNS day in IN in E. NP E. connexa NP , , , 21.2 CD @card@ days NNS day in IN in C. NP C. maculata NP , , , 20.0 CD @card@ days NNS day in IN in C. NP C. quadrifasciata NN , , , and CC and 18.9 CD @card@ days NNS day in IN in O. NP O. v-nigrum NN at IN at 25degreeC NP when WRB when they PP they fed VVD feed on IN on the DT the drone NN drone powder NN powder diet NN diet . SENT . Mean JJ mean adult NN adult body NN body weight NN weight of IN of each DT each species NN species was VBD be 11.7 CD @card@ mg NN mg in IN in E. NP E. connexa NP , , , 18.9 CD @card@ mg NN mg in IN in C. NP C. maculata NP , , , 24.4 CD @card@ mg NN mg in IN in C. NP C. quadrifasciata NN , , , and CC and 16.2 CD @card@ mg NN mg in IN in O. NP O. v NN v -nigrum NN . SENT . Adult NN adult of IN of E. NP E. connexa NP consumed VVD consume 31.0 CD @card@ Aphis NN aphis gossypii NN individuals NNS individual or CC or 22.1 CD @card@ Lipaphis NP erysimi NN individuals NNS individual per IN per day NN day at IN at 25degreeC NP , , , while IN while C. NP C. maculata NP consumed VVD consume 34.5 CD @card@ A. NP A. gossypii NN individuals NNS individual or CC or 6.6 CD @card@ L. NP L. erysimi NN individuals NNS individual per IN per day NN day . SENT . Predatory JJ predatory mites NNS mite , , , Phytoseiulus NP macropilis NP , , , P. NP P. fragariae NN , , , and CC and Amblyseius NP idaeus NN were VBD be collected VVN collect in IN in strawberry JJ strawberry fields NNS field in IN in Caacupe NP and CC and Ita NP Ita . SENT . The DT the development NN development time NN time was VBD be 5.0 CD @card@ days NNS day in IN in P. NP P. macropilis NN and CC and 7.0 CD @card@ days NNS day in IN in A. NP A. idaeus NN at IN at 25degreeC NP . SENT . Female JJ female of IN of P. NP P. macropilis NN consumed VVN consume 27.0 CD @card@ eggs NNS egg of IN of Tetranychus NP urticae NN per IN per day NN day and CC and deposited VVD deposit 3.1 CD @card@ eggs NNS egg , , , while IN while A. NP A. idaeus NN consumed VVN consume 18.0 CD @card@ eggs NNS egg of IN of T. NP T. urticae NN per IN per day NN day and CC and deposited VVD deposit 3.2 CD @card@ eggs NNS egg at IN at 25degreeC NP . SENT . Bee NP Bee venom NN venom is VBZ be a DT a complex JJ complex substance NN substance , , , which WDT which acts VVZ act in IN in several JJ several tissues NNS toilet . SENT . Although IN Although severe JJ severe allergic JJ allergic reactions NNS reaction have VHP have occurred VVN occur after IN after one CD one or CC or more JJR more stings NNS sting , , , several JJ several deaths NNS death have VHP have been VBN be reported VVN report without IN without allergic JJ allergic manifestations NNS manifestation , , , emphasizing VVG emphasize the DT the toxic JJ toxic effects NNS effect of IN of massive JJ massive poisoning NN poisoning . SENT . A DT a number NN number of IN of about RB about 500 CD @card@ stings NNS sting have VHP have been VBN be considered VVN consider necessary JJ necessary to TO to cause VV cause death NN death by IN by direct JJ direct toxicity NN toxicity , , , but CC but as RB as few JJ few as IN as 30 CD @card@ -50 CD @card@ stings NNS sting have VHP have proved VVN prove fatal JJ fatal in IN in children NNS child . SENT . Among IN amongst the DT the major JJ major toxic JJ toxic effects NNS effect are VBP be hemolytic JJ anemia NN anaemia , , , acute JJ acute renal JJ renal failure NN failure ( ( ( ARF NP ) ) ) , , , and CC and shock NN shock . SENT . ARF NP may MD may be VB be due JJ due to TO to a DT a common JJ common toxic-ischemic JJ mechanism NN mechanism with IN with hypovolemic JJ or CC or anaphylactic JJ shock NN shock , , , pigment NN pigment tubulopathy NN ( ( ( myoglobinuria NN and CC and hemoglobinuria NN haemoglobinuria ) ) ) , , , or CC or acute JJ acute tubular JJ tubular necrosis NN necrosis ( ( ( ATN NP ATN ) ) ) from IN from a DT a direct JJ direct kidney NN kidney toxicity NN toxicity of IN of the DT the venom NN venom . SENT . We PP we present VVP present a DT a case NN case of IN of rhabdomyolysis NN and CC and hemolysis NNS haemolysis with IN with consequent JJ consequent ARF NP which WDT which developed VVD develop after IN after about RB about 800 CD @card@ bee NN bee stings NNS sting . SENT . The DT the patient NN patient recovered VVD recover completely RB completely after IN after peritoneal JJ peritoneal dialysis NN dialysis . SENT . Aims NNS aim : : : To TO To investigate VV investigate effects NNS effect of IN of introduced VVN introduce honey NN honey bees NNS bee , , , Apis NP mellifera NP L. NP L. , , , on IN on the DT the nectar-feeding NN activity NN activity of IN of two CD two species NNS specie of IN of endemic JJ endemic nectarivorous JJ birds NNS bird , , , the DT the Grey NP Grey White-eye NN white-eye , , , Zosterops NP borbonicus NN mauritianus NN Gmelin NP , , , and CC and the DT the Olive NP Olive White-eye NN white-eye , , , Z. NP Z. chloronothos NP Viellot NP , , , on IN on two CD two endemic JJ endemic flowering JJ flowering trees NNS tree , , , Sideroxylon NP cinereum NP Lam. NP and CC and S. NP S. puberulum NN DC NP DC . SENT . ( ( ( Sapotaceae NP ) ) ) , , , and CC and to TO to examine VV examine pollination NN pollination efficiency NN efficiency of IN of birds NNS bird and CC and honey NN honey bees NNS bee . SENT . Location NN location : : : An DT an upland JJ upland heath NN heath area NN area on IN on the DT the island NN island of IN of Mauritius NP Mauritius , , , Indian NP Indian Ocean NP Ocean . SENT . Methods NNS method : : : We PP we quantified VVN quantify visitation NN visitation rates NNS rate of IN of endemic JJ endemic birds NNS bird and CC and introduced VVN introduce honey NN honey bees NNS bee at IN at two CD two endemic JJ endemic species NNS specie of IN of flowering JJ flowering trees NNS tree . SENT . Diurnal JJ diurnal variation NN variation in IN in nectar NN nectar standing NN standing crop NN crop and CC and nectar NN nectar production NN production was VBD be measured VVN measured . SENT . Pollination NN pollination efficiency NN efficiency of IN of flower NN flower visitors NNS visitor was VBD be examined VVN examine using VVG use bagging VVG bag and CC and caging VVG cage experiments NNS experiment . SENT . Results NNS result : : : White-eyes NNS white-eye were VBD be only RB only nectar-feeding VVG at IN at the DT the two CD two Sideroxylon NP species NNS specie early JJ early in IN in the DT the morning NN morning , , , stopping VVG stop when WRB when honey NN honey bee NN bee foraging VVG forage activity NN activity rapidly RB rapidly lowered VVD lower nectar NN nectar standing NN standing crops NNS crop . SENT . White-eyes NNS white-eye continued VVD continue nectar-feeding VVG at IN at other JJ other flowering JJ flowering plant NN plant species NNS specie , , , exploited VVN exploit less RBR less by IN by honey NN honey bees NNS bee , , , throughout IN throughout the DT the day NN day . SENT . Honey NN honey bees NNS bee were VBD be less RBR less efficient JJ efficient pollinators NNS pollinator of IN of the DT the two CD two Sideroxylon NP species NNS specie than IN than white-eyes NNS white-eye . SENT . Main JJ main conclusions NNS conclusion : : : Our PP$ our results NNS result indicate VVP indicate that DT that introduced VVN introduce honey NN honey bees NNS bee could MD could be VB be interfering VVG interfere with IN with endemic JJ endemic interactions NNS interaction between IN between the DT the two CD two Sideroxylon NP species NNS specie and CC and the DT the two CD two white-eye NN white-eye species NNS specie . SENT . However RB however , , , because IN because of IN of lack NN lack of IN of a DT a neutral JJ neutral control NN control site NN site without IN without honey NN honey bees NNS bee , , , we PP we can MD can not RB not exclude VV exclude other JJ other explanations NNS explanation . SENT . We PP we do VVP do recommend VV recommend , , , although IN although , , , that IN that honey NN honey bees NNS bee need VVP need to TO to be VB be taken VVN take into IN into consideration NN consideration in IN in the DT the future JJ future conservation NN conservation management NN management of IN of Mauritian JJ Mauritian ecosystems NNS ecosystem . SENT . We PP we suggest VVP suggest that IN that island NN island ecosystems NNS ecosystem are VBP be especially RB especially vulnerable JJ vulnerable to TO to introduced VVN introduce honey NN honey bees NNS bee . SENT . In IN in vitro NN tests NNS test , , , oxytetracycline NN oxytetracycline ( ( ( OTC NP OTC ) ) ) showed VVD show a DT a highly RB highly inhibitory JJ inhibitive effect NN effect on IN on spores NNS swarm of IN of Paeniacillus NP larvae NNS larva larvae NNS larva isolated VVN isolate from IN from colonies NNS colony of IN of honey NN honey bee NN bee ( ( ( Apis NP mellifera NN ) ) ) in IN in Taiwan NP Taiwan ( ( ( MIC NP MIC = SYM = 0.125 CD @card@ mug/ml NN ) ) ) , , , but CC but showed VVD show no DT no sporicidal JJ effect NN effect . SENT . In IN in field NN field tests NNS test , , , honey NN honey bee NN bee colonies NNS colony were VBD be medicated VVN medicate with IN with OTC NP OTC syrup NN syrup to TO to determine VV determine its PP$ its effectiveness NN effectiveness in IN in prevention NN prevention of IN of American JJ American foulbrood NN ( ( ( AFB NP ) ) ) in IN in young JJ young larvae NNS larva . SENT . Results NNS result showed VVD show that IN that two CD two doses NNS dose of IN of OTC NP OTC syrup NN syrup , , , 125 CD @card@ mg/colony NN and CC and 50 CD @card@ mg/colony NN , , , prevented VVD prevent AFB NP signs NNS sign for IN for a DT a period NN period of IN of , , , at IN at least JJS least , , , 9 CD 9 days NNS day and CC and 3 CD 3 days NNS day , , , respectively RB respectively . SENT . Colonies NNS colony with IN with a DT a mild JJ mild AFB NP infection NN infection treated VVN treat with IN with hive NN hive replacement NN replacement recovered VVD recover from IN from the DT the disease NN disease , , , and CC and no DT no AFB NP recurrence NN recurrence was VBD be seen VVN see in IN in an DT an investigation NN investigation period NN period of IN of 15 CD @card@ weeks NNS week . SENT . In IN in addition NN addition to TO to hive VV hive replacement NN replacement , , , colonies NNS colony with IN with a DT a heavy JJ heavy infection NN infection should MD should also RB also be VB be medicated VVN medicate with IN with 125 CD @card@ mg NN mg of IN of OTC NP OTC on IN on the DT the 5th JJ 5th day NN day post-replacement NN . SENT . This DT this experiment NN experiment was VBD be conducted VVN conduct in IN in a DT a plum JJ plum orchard NN orchard in IN in which WDT which half-and-half JJ half-and-half peach JJ peach root-stocked VVN plums NNS plum and CC and California NP California plums NNS plum are VBP be cultivated VVN cultivate . SENT . Two CD Two colonies NNS colony of IN of Apis NP cerana NN and CC and five CD five colonies NNS colony of IN of Apis NP mellifera NN were VBD be moved VVN move in IN in before RB before flowering VVG flowering to TO to investigate VV investigate the DT the pollinating VVG pollinate ecology NN ecology of IN of the DT the two CD two pollinator NN pollinator species NNS specie . SENT . The DT the plum JJ plum blooming VVG bloom period NN period was VBD be 21 CD @card@ d SYM d , , , and CC and there EX there were VBD be more JJR more than IN than six CD six flowers NNS flower per IN per twig NN twig from IN from the DT the 7th JJ 7th to TO to 12nd JJ days NNS day after IN after blooming VVG bloom . SENT . The DT the pollination NN pollination activity NN activity of IN of A. NP A. cerana NN on IN on plums NNS plum peaked VVN peak between IN between 0900 CD @card@ and CC and 1100 CD @card@ h NN h , , , while IN while that DT that of IN of A. NP A. mellifera NP peaked VVD peak between IN between 1100 CD @card@ and CC and 1300 CD @card@ h NN h , , , coinciding VVG coincide with IN with the DT the time NN time period NN period of IN of daytime JJ daytime gathering NN gathering of IN of maxi